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BOOK    372.89.M298    c.  1 
MALTBY    #    MAP    MODELING    IN 
GEOGRAPHY 


Pill 


3  T1S3  OOllflbMfl  7 


This  Book  may  be  kept  out 

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TWO  CENTS  a  day  thereafter. 
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AG  I  2  60 


MODELING    BOARD    WITH    MAP   OF   NORTH    AMERICA. 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography 


INCLUDING  THE   USE  OF 


SAND,  CLAY,   PUTTY,   PAPER  PULP, 

PLASTER   OF   PARIS,    AND 

OTHER  MATERIALS 


CHALK    MODELING 

IN  ITS  ADAPTATION  TO  PURPOSES  OF  ILLUSTRATION 

FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 


BY 

Dr.  ALBERT  ELIAS  MALTBY,   A.M.,  C.E. 

Principal  of  Slippery  Rock  State  Normal  School,  Pa. 


NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO  : 

E.    L.    KELLOGG  &  CO, 


Copyright,  1894 

BY 

ALBERT  E.   MALTBY 
All  rights  reserved 


TO 

MY  MOTHER 

RACHEL   EMELINE   MALTBY 

THIS  BOOK   IS   DEDICATED   AS  A 

TRIBUTE  OF  LOVE  AND   HONOR 


PREFACE. 


The  use  of  modeling  as  a  means  of  symbolizing  the  various 
land  forms  in  geography  has  become  so  valuable  in  these  days  of 
advanced  methods  in  teaching,  that  it  is  thought  these  abstracts 
from  the  practical  methods  of  a  schoolroom  may  be  found  help- 
ful to  many  teachers.  Any  application  of  the  anthropomorphic 
idea  of  fashioning  or  making  will  follow  the  law  of  all  child-thought 
in  that  the  unknown  is  assimilated  to  the  known.  The  child  is 
really  and  directly  familiar  with  only  one  mode  of  origin,  and 
that  is  the  making  of  things.  One  of  the  great  joys  of  children 
is  to  be  able  to  make  things ;  and  this  desire,  which  is  indeed  very 
great,  should  be  utilized  in  their  instruction. 

All  the  elements  of  geographical  science  are  found  near  every 
schoolhouse  ;  therefore  the  home  district  should  be  studied  first. 
Ritter  says,  "  Wherever  our  home  is,  there  lie  all  the  materials 
that  we  need  for  the  study  of  the  entire  globe." 

The  available  language  of  geography  can  alone  render  these 
home  elements  valuable  ;  and  modern  educators  are  almost  unani- 
mous in  the  claim  that  speech,  modeling,  pictures,  sketches,  and 
maps  form  the  primal  language  of  the  science.  These  symbols, 
however,  are  of  use  only  when  they  fix  a  mental  picture  of  the 
thing  represented,  and  do  not  fix  attention  upon  themselves. 
Through  the  constructive  phase  of  the  imagination,  unseen  places 
and  peoples  must  be  brought  vividly  before  the  mind,  and  the 
pupils  may  then  translate  them  into  the  language  of  models,  chalk 
models,  pictures,  and  maps. 

Geogra'phy  is  truly  a  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man, 

5 


6  Preface, 

and  should  become  ''  a  school  of  culture  for  the  human  race,  and 
an  essential  Hnk  in  the  chain  of  sciences."  All  molding  or  draw- 
ing that  simply  reproduces  the  form  of  the  map,  without  enlarg- 
ing and  completing  the  pupil's  concept  of  surface  structure,  fails 
of  its  intended  object.  It  becomes  a  hindrance  rather  than  an 
aid,  since  it  fails  to  build  up  in  the  mind  a  concept  of  the  country 
or  continent  as  a  unit. 

The  teacher  will,  however,  use  modeling  as  a  means,  not  as 
an  end,  and  thus  make  it  a  power  in  good  instruction. 

A.  E.  M. 

State  Normal  School,  Slippery  Rock,  Pa., 
May  10,  1895. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Dedication 4 

Preface 5 

A.  Map  Modeling  in  Geography 9-1 5 1 

Elementary  Geography 9 

Materials  in  Sand-modeling 11 

Value  of  Relief-maps 14 

Primary  Work 16-44 

I.  The  Fields 17 

II.  The  Slope 19 

III.  The  Hill 21 

IV.  A  Primary  Lesson  on  Hills 22 

V.  Local  Geography 24 

VI.  The  Spring 28 

VII.  A  Brook  Basin 30 

VIII.  Mountains 31 

IX.  A  River  Valley 34 

X.  An  Active  Volcano.     1 36 

XL  Volcanoes  II.     Vesuvius 39 

XII.  Volcanoes  III.     The  Middle  Seas 43 

Nature  Study 45-65 

I.  An  Observation  Lesson 46 

11.  The  Common  Rocks 47-50 

1.  Scale  of  Hardness 47 

2.  Quartz 48 

3.  Granite 48 

4.  Sandstone 49 

5.  Hornblende 49 

6.  Limestone 49 

7.  Marble 50 

III.  A  Lesson  on  Coal 50 

IV.  A  Field  Lesson 52 

V.  Children's  Report  of  the  Lesson 56 

7 


8  Contents. 

PAGE 

VI.  The  Great  Father  of  Waters 58 

VII.  A  Line  upon  the  Sand 61-65 

1.  From  the  School-yard  to  the  Stars 61 

2.  A  Meridian  Line 62 

Advanced  Work  in  Sand-modeling 66 

I.  From  the  Predominant  Mountain  Sj^stem 66 

J .  North  America 68 

II.  Modeling  from  the  Flat  Layer  of  Sand 72 

I .  Africa 76 

III.  Molding  upon  an  Outline 76 

IV.  Molding  from  a  Central  Mass 76-105 

1.  A  Lesson  with  the  Molding-board  (South  America) yj 

2.  A  Progressive  Sand-map:  South  America 82 

3.  Directions  for  Molding  North  America 85 

4.  Africa 88 

5.  Australia 90 

6.  Asia 92 

7.  Europe 94 

8.  How  to  Mold  Europe  in  Sand.     (Pupils'  Work.) 96 

9.  Contrasts  and  Resemblances 100-105 

1.  North  America  and  South  America 100 

2.  Europe  and  Asia loi 

3.  Northern  Continents  and  Southern  Continents 103 

4.  The  Old  World  and  the  New  World  (Tate) 104 

Advanced  Modeling  in  Papier-mache 106-129 

I.  Pulp-making 106 

II.  Folding  a  Map-scale 108 

III.  Molding  North  America  in  Papier-mache 109 

IV.  Modeling  South  America 114 

V.  Molding  Africa , 118 

VI.  Modeling  Australia 120 

VII.  Molding  Asia 123 

VIII.  Molding  Europe 125 

Advanced  Modeling  in  Other  Media 130 

I.  Putty  molding 130 

1.  Plain  Putty.    , 130 

2.  Colored  Putty 130 


Contents. 


PAGE 


II.  Molding  in  Plaster  of  Paris 135 

III.  Maps  of  Finest  Finish 136 

IV.  One  Use  of  Relief-maps , 137 

Chalk-modeling 143 

1.  Map  Drawing 143 

2.  Illustrative  Sketching. 149 

B.  Map  Modeling  in  History 1 52-223 

I.  Lessons  in  Home  Geography 155-197 

1.  The  Spring  in  the  Pasture 155 

2.  Forms  of  Land 1 59 

3.  Products 1 64 

4.  Occupations 169 

5.  Underground  Products 172 

6.  Manufacturing 178 

7.  Bird  Trades 182 

8.  Buying  and  Selling 184 

9.  Races  of  Men 187 

10.  Other  Occupations 192 

11.  Local  Products 196 

II.  Some  Studies  in  Associated  Lines 198-223 

1.  A  Myth — The  Stepmother  Flower 198 

2.  The  Little  Plant  That  Longed  to  be  Useful 201 

3.  What  the  Young  Oak  Said 207 

4.  A  Queer  Counting  Device 212 

5.  A  Study  of  the  History  of  a  State 213 


MAP  MODELING  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 


ELEMENTARY   GEOGRAPHY. 

If  there  is  any  study  in  which  it  is  especially  important  that  a 
proper  and  intelligent  beginning  should  be  made,  that  branch  is 
geography.  Teachers  often  fail  to  make  proper  presentation  of 
the  subject  because  they  do  not  study  their  pupils,  and  therefore 
cannot  understand  what  the  children  need.  The  author  of  Eviile 
says  :  ''  Nature  requires  children  to  be  children  before  they  are 
men  ;"  and  also,  "A  child  has  neither  the  strength  nor  the  judg- 
ment of  a  man,  but  he  is  capable  of  feeling  and  hearing  as  well, 
or  at  least  nearly  so."  Teachers  fail  through  neglect  of  the 
proper  study  of  the  natural  propensities  of  children.  In  children 
the  creative  faculty  is  strongly  developed,  and  is  manifested  in  an 
infinite  number  of  ways.  Watch  that  httle  child  as  he  plays  in 
his  father's  garden.  He  has  no  knowledge  of  geography  as  a  sci- 
ence, yet  he  has  gained  what  the  Gemans  call  Erdkunde — earth- 
knowledge.  Here  he  has  represented  the  course  of  a  stream  by 
his  furrows  and  ditches  in  the  soft  and  yielding  soil ;  there  he  ex- 
amines into  the  effect  of  water  upon  his  little  wheel  placed  at  the 
fall  made  in  the  stream  which  he  has  dammed  up  to  form  a  minia- 
ture pond.  Everything  must  subserve  to  this  impulse  toward 
formation.  Here  a  splendid  mansion  stands  in  all  its  glory  of 
colored  blocks  ;  there  a  thriving  village  extends  along  the  plain. 
Roads  of  sawdust  or  of  sand  lead  from  the  mansion  to  the  vil- 
lage, while  a  miniature  forest  of  beautiful  green  moss  crowns  the 
neighboring  hill.     Even  an  artificial  sea  is  not   forgotten  ;  and, 


lo  Map  ModeUng  in  Geography. 

perhaps,  a  little  brother  leads  out  the  whole  menagerie  of  Noah's 
ark  to  graze  upon  the  surrounding  meadows.  Rivers  and  canals, 
bridges,  dams,  mills,  seaports, — all  are  there.  Who  can  demon- 
strate the  many-sided  significance,  the  glorious  possibilities  of  the 
proper  application  of  these  plays  of  childhood  }  Play,  which  is 
the  poetry  of  childhood,  is  an  activity  which  ministers  to  the 
needs  of  the  child,  but  it  is  also  a  guide  to  the  teacher  in  deter- 
mining upon  a  method  of  instruction.  It  is  a  powerful  force  to  be 
used  in  the  work  of  education.  The  true  teacher  learns  some  of 
his  best  lessons  from  his  pupils.  Let  us  learn  a  lesson  here.  Let 
us  remember  with  Rousseau  that  our  first  instructors  are  our  feet, 
hands,  and  eyes.  Substituting  books  for  the  natural  means  of 
obtaining  knowledge  is  not  teaching  us  to  reason,  but  teaching  us 
to  use  the  reasoning  of  others  ;  it  is  teaching  us  to  believe  a  great 
deal,  and  never  to  kiwzu  anything. 

How  then  should  elementary  geography  be  taught  in  our 
schools  ?  The  answer  seems  obvious.  Utilize  from  the  start  the 
natural  creativ^e  longing  of  the  child.  We  shall  gain  if  we  let  the 
children  lead  us.  We  know  that  a  proper  exercise  of  the  crea- 
tive power  produces  most  happy  results  in  their  education.  This 
is  especially  true  when  the  thing  made  takes  some  definite  form. 
Bring  the  sand-table  into  the  scJioolrooni.  The  molding-board 
then  becomes  a  powerful  means  of  cultivating  the  idea  of  form. 
It  aids  in  teaching  the  children  to  see.  Seeing,  as  an  art,  has  been 
much  neglected.  Children  must  be  taught  to  observe  accurately, 
and  then  to  reflect  on  their  observations.  Open  their  eyes  to  the 
beautiful  things  of  the  world  in  which  they  live.  The  teaching 
them  becomes  objective;  the  children  acquire  ideas  from  the  ob- 
ject of  thought,  and  learn  to  express  them  correctly.  By  far  too 
many  people  go  through  life  without  ever  realizing  that  the  eyes 
must  be  educated  to  see,  as  well  as  the  tongue  to  speak. 

With  young  children,  especially,  it  will  not  do  for  the  teacher 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography,  ii 

to  adopt  the  lecture  system  of  recitation.  No  amount  of  words, 
however  simple  and  well  chosen,  will  avail  much  unless  the  child 
is  brought  to  express  himself  on  the  subject  in  his  own  language. 
Short,  clear,  and  intelligible  questions  should  be  given  in  order 
to  excite  him  to  observe  what  is  before  him,  to  recollect  what  he 
has  learned,  and  to  bring  together  his  stock  of  knowledge  for  the 
materials  for  an  answer.  *'  From  observation  and  memory  there 
is  only  one  step  to  reflection, "says  Pestalozzi. 

Karl  Ritter,  who  first  brought  geography  to  the  rank  of  a  sci- 
ence, says  :  "  The  most  natural  method  is  the  one  which  makes 
the  child  famiHar  with  reality  first ;  which  lays  a  sound  founda- 
tion of  geographical  knowledge,  gained  through  actual  observa- 
tion of  that  part  of  nature  which  surrounds  the  child.  Here  he 
is  to  learn  to  see.  Whether  he  lives  in  the  city  or  in  the  hamlet, 
on  the  mountain  or  in  the  valley,  it  is  certainly  not  within  the 
four  walls,  not  from  maps,  and  not  from  text-books,  but  in  nature 
alone  that  knowledge  of  nature  will  be  gained  by  him.  Nature 
ever  remains  the  same  ;  she  knows  no  typographical  errors,  no 
blunders  in  drawing,  no  want  of  discretion.  Nature's  teaching 
is  always  perfect."  This  elementary  method  combines  all  the 
requirements  of  science  ;  it  furnishes  the  stratum  of  concrete 
knowledge  from  which  abstract  ideas  are  drawn.  Amid  nature 
the  child  learns  to  knov/  the  country  in  all  its  various  conditions, 
and  learns  to  recognize  it  even  on  the  flat-surfaced  representation, 
the  map.  When  this  genuine  elementary  instruction  is  given,  all 
difficulties  of  subsequent  instruction  in  geography  are  removed. 

MATERIALS   IN   SAND-MODELING. 

In  many  respects  the  sand-heap  of  the  playground  is  the  ideal 
form  for  the  presentation  of  this  medium  of  symbolizing,  and  its 
introduction  into  the  kindergarten   in  this  primitive   form  is  fre- 


12 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography. 


quently  seen.  The  needs  of  the  ordinary  public  school  demand 
a  more  convenient  form,  however,  and  this  need,  is  met  by  the 
use  of  the  molding-table,  the  molding-board,  and  the  modeling- 
pan. 

In  order  that  good  work  may  be  done  in  the  classroom,  it  is 
necessary  that  provision  be  made  for  at  least  one  large  modeling- 
board.  A  small  table,  with  strips  of  board  t^Mee  inches  \vide 
nailed  around  the   edges,  will   make  a  very  good  molding-board 


Fig.  I. 


for  use  in  a  school.  The  top  of  the  table  should  have  its  width 
and  length  in  the  proportion  of  four  to  five  (Fig.  i).  A  very  ser- 
viceable movable  molding-table  is  shown  in  the  frontispiece.  Any 
carpenter  can  make  one  readily  from  the  details  shown  in  the 
illustrations.  The  board  shown  in  Fig.  2  is  32  inches  wide  and  40 
inches  long. 

In  order  to  use  the  following  plans  in  molding  the  conti- 
nents, the  space  within  which  the  modeling  is  to  be  done  may  be 
marked  off  upon  the  board  when  the  dimensions  of  the  molding- 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography. 


13 


table  are  not  as  four  to  five.  If  the  board  permits,  mark  an  ob- 
long rectangle  32''  X  40",  and  divide  the  sides  according  to  the 
directions  given  in  the  m^odeling  of  the  several  continents. 

The  individual  molding-board  found  most  serviceable  in  gen- 


==iai 


Fig.  2, 


eral  use  is  about  16  inches  wide  and  20  inches  long.  A  strip  of 
wood  about  one  inch  wide  should  be  nailed  around  the  edp:es  in 
order  to  hold  the  sand  in  place  (see  Fig.  3). 


Fig.  3. 

Modeling-pans,  somewhat  smaller  than  the  modeling-boards, 
are  in  use  in  some  schools.  The  important  point  to  be  observed 
is  to  individualize  the  work  wherever  it  is  possible  so  to  do. 


14  Map  Modeling  in  Geography. 

The  sand  used  should  be  either  the  molding-sand  used  in  the 
foundry,  or  clean  sharp  sand  from  the  lake  or  river.  It  should 
be  kept  in  a  convenient  box,  and  moistened  occasionally.  Do 
not  attempt  to  stir  or  mix  the  sand,  but  pour  over  it  a  small 
quantity  of  Avater  a  few  hours  before  the  material  is  wanted  for 
use.  The  water  will  soak  evenly  into  the  mass,  and  the  sand 
will  remain  in  position  when  placed  upon  the  board  in  the  model 
of  the  hill  or  continent. 

Some  teachers  prefer  to  use  dry  white  sand,  meal,  salt,  and 
other  materials.  These  substances  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
moist  sand  without  any  considerable  changes  in  the  mode  of 
using.  Pebbles  from  the  brook  or  beach,  fragments  of  minerals, 
and  many  other  materials  will  be  suggested  by  the  child.  To  him 
the  world  itself  is  one  big  house  where  everything  has  been  made 
by  somebody,  or  at  least  fetched  from  somewhere. 

The  teacher  must  call  to  her  aid  the  children  and  their  parents. 
The  supply  of  useful  material  will  then  be  limited  only  by  the 
resources  of  the  various  homes  represented  in  the  school. 

Value  of  Relief-maps. — The  objection  is  sometimes  made 
against  the  use  of  relief-maps  that  they  do  not  correctly  repre- 
sent the  surface  of  the  earth,  since  the  altitudes,  in  comparison 
with  horizontal  distances,  are  of  necessity  very  much  exagger- 
ated. The  same  reasoning  would  prevent  the  civil  engineer  from 
using  profiles  to  represent  the  elevations  obtained  in  his  topo- 
graphical surveys,  for  the  exaggeration  of  elevation  in  the  profile 
is  exactly  that  which  attains  prominence  in  the  relief-map.  The 
diagrams  that  geographers  have  long  employed  to  represent  ele- 
vations are  sivn^ly  profiles,  and  must  be  abandoned  in  all  teaching 
if  this  objection  to  the  relief-map  is  valid.  But  the  fact  is  that 
such  objections  are  in  reality  baseless.  We  must  seek  after  gen- 
eral concepts  of  continental  outline  and  organization.  The  flat  map 
is,  in  respect  to  elevation  at  least,  unmixed  untruth;  and  even 


h4ap  Modeling  in  Geography.  15 

the  coast-lines  in  many  places  must  necessarily  be  very  imper- 
fect. Compare  these  shore-lines,  as  given  in  any  school  geogra- 
phy, with  a  topographical  m.ap  of  a  small  portion  of  the  shore  ; 
the  inaccuracy  is  seen  at  once,  yet  the  value  of  the  school  map  is 
not  in  reality  impaired.  The  general  truth  of  oiitli?ie  is  impressed, 
and  zve  leave  the  details  in  their  proper  relation.  So,  in  reference 
to  the  third  dimension  of  form,  it  becomes  necessary  to  avoid  the 
error  of  the  entire  absence  of  elevation  by  the  smaller  error  of 
exaggeration.  The  apparently  excessive  prominence  given  to 
the  elevations  in  modeling  is,  however,  exactly  that  which  the 
eye  gives  to  all  objects  when  seen  in  their  natural  relation  to 
the  horizontal  distance.  The  height  of  any  hill  appears  much 
greater  than  the  facts  of  measurement  of  base  and  altitude  will 
warrant.  The  eye  naturally  neglects  horizontal  distance.  No- 
tice the  effect  of  close  approach  to  an  object  in  the  picture  of 
Satan's  Tower,  Wyoming  (Fig.  4). 

No  teacher  would  insist  that  a  general  truth  in  regard  to  the 
base  and  the  altitude  of  a  given  triangle  could  not  be  shown  with- 
out the  accurate  construction  of  the  lines  and  angles  in  their 
relations.  Still,  that  is  exactly  the  problem  that  we  have  before 
us.  We  wish  to  show  the  slopes  of  a  river-basin,  and  exhibit  the 
effects  of  elevation.  We  step  to  the  blackboard  and  draw  two 
lines  meeting  at  an  angle,  and  ask  that  these  may  be  supposed  to 
represent  the  slopes  of  the  basin.  Is  it  a  valid  objection  to  state 
that  if  the  two  slopes  were  actually  platted  to  scale  the  eye  could 
not  distinguish  where  the  tingle  appeared  ? 

Relief-maps  have  been  used  by  the  best  geographers  to  illus- 
trate the  facts  of  the  science,  and  objections  to  such  use  are  most 
apt  to  come  from  those  teachers  who  are  afraid  of  anything  in- 
volving any  expenditure  of  energy.  ''  It  is  no  wonder,"  says 
Locke,  ''  if  those  who  make  the  fashion  suit  it  to  what  they  have, 
and  not  to  what  their  pupils  need." 


i6  Map  Modeling  in  Geography, 

PRIMARY  WORK. 

The  use  of  the  sand-heap  and  sand-table  in  the  primary  grades 
should  be  made  definite  in  purpose.  The  more  we  are  able  to 
make  the  modeling  a  means  whereby  the  child  symbolizes  what 
he  has  observed,  the  greater  will  be  the  mental  gain  of  the  child 
through  the  use  of  the  medium.  The  child  has  already  gained 
many  ideas  about  fields,  hills,  roads,  streams,  clouds,  storms, 
trees,  animals,  and  people.  These  must  be  used  in  obtaining 
ideas  regarding  remote  regions.  Let  the  teacher  and  pupil  talk 
together  as  the  modeling  progresses,  the  child  forming  a  mental 
picture  as  the  slope  or  hill  is  molded  by  his  hands.  Thus  the 
relief  form  comes  into  its  true  relation  as  a  symbol,  and  the  child 
sees  the  slope,  hill,  range,  or  chain.  He  outlines  the  continent, 
makes  mountains  here  and  valleys  there ;  now  he  sees  high  cliffs, 
and  sandy  beaches,  harbors  and  mouths  of  rivers.  He  shows  the 
lines  of  watercourses,  marks  the  places  of  swamps  and  deserts, 
forest  glades,  and  all  the  varied  panorama  that  one  would  behold 
while  making  the  actual  journey.  To  him — t/ie  continent-builder 
— the  living  world-mass  rises  up  in  miniature.  What  he  has  seen 
of  streams  and  lands,  of  roads  and  cities,  forms  the  basic  m.ate- 
rial  for  picturing  to  himself  the  distant  places. 

Having  first  become  acquainted  with  nature  as  it  exists  under 
different  conditions  of  surface,  climate,  and  culture,  the  child 
knows  the  thing  to  be  symbolized ;  the  symbol  then  has  value,  and 
not  till  then. 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography. 


17 


Fig.  5. 


ULtnnnn  K* 

The  Fields. 

1.  The  children  are  gathered  around  the  large  molding-board 
or  sand-table. 

2.  A  quantity  of  sand  sufficient  to  cover  an  oblong  space  near 
the  centre  is  placed  on  the  table. 

3.  Some  of  the  children  are  allowed  to  make  it  look  like  [re- 
present] the  meadow.  They  will  smooth  it  out  flat,  and  perhaps 
suggest  the  placing  of  a  fence  around  it. 


i8 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography, 


4.  Let  them  build  a  fence  around  it,  using  sticks,  shoe-pegs, 
pebbles,  or  other  available  material. 

Let  them  divide  it  into  smaller  fields,  marking  them  to  denote 
the  various  kinds, — the  corn-lands,  meadows,  and  wheat-fields. 
Houses  may   be    represented   by   paper   forms   or   kindergarten 


^  w 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  6. 


blocks.     The  bridge  over  the  stream,  and  many  other  representa- 
tions may  be  made  by  the  employment  of  paper-folding. 

Use  blue  yarn  or  string  to  represent   the  stream  or  brook.     Draw  white 
string  over  a  piece  of  blue  crayon. 

When  the  children  have  modeled  the  level  fields,  arranged 
the  houses,  bridges,  etc.,  each  child  should  draw  with  the  side  of 
the  crayon  a  chalk  model  (Fig.  5)  of  the  field.  The  details  may 
then  be  drawn  into  the  gray  mass.  The  pencil  may  be  used  in  a 
similar  manner. 

Chalk-modeling  has  been  largely  used  in  the  illustration  of 
this  little  book.  The  sketches  have  in  all  cases  been  copied  from 
the  blackboard  work,  and  are  intended  to  show  the  general  effects 
that  may  be  produced  by  the  use  of  the  flat  side  of  the  crayon. 
The  pictures  are  drawn  in  less  than  one  minute  each,  with  effects 
requiring  much  longer  time  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  repro- 
duce them. 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography. 


19 


'^^^^^^f^^. 


m^ 


Fig 


Hcsson  )IK. 

The  Slope. 

1.  Children  mold  the  side  of  a  hill,  or  a  slope  of  ground. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  pour  some  Avater  down  the  slope. 

Did  you  ever  see  water  flowing  down  a  slope  ?     In  the  rain. 

Each  little  rill  wears  its  furrow  in  the  surface. 

Uniting,  they  form  a  rivulet,  and  wear  a  broader  and  deeper 
channel. 

Where  does  the  rain  come  from  ? 

But  how  did  the  clouds  gather  rain  and  let  it  come  down  to 
the  earth  ? 

See  how  muddy  the  water  has  become  in  the  little  stream. 

Did  you  ever  see  the  pools  of  muddy  water  formed  in  the 
hollows  of  the  road  ? 

Water  flows  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level. 


20  Map  Modeling  in  Geography. 

The  water  carries  the  fine  soil  down  the  slope.  Does  it  take 
the  sand  so  far  ?  The  little  rills  cannot  move  the  larger  pebbles. 
But  the  large  stream  along  the  roadside  may  move  quite  large 
stones.     Where  will  the  mud  of  the  water  be  left  ? 

Is  there  a  long  slope  near  the  school  ?  What  kind  of  soil 
covers  the  surface.     Do  you  know  what  is  underneath  ? 

Find  some  sand ;  some  fine  loam  of  the  meadow.  Bring  clay 
from  the  banks  of  the  stream.     Here  is  sova^  gravel. 

Some  day  when  the  dark  water  is  rushing  down  the  slope  of 
the  roadway,  go  out  and  dip  up  a  glassful  of  the  water.  Let  it 
stand  all  night  in  the  glass.  What  is  it  that  you  find  at  the 
bottom  ? 


Mjp  Modeling  in  Geography. 


21 


Fig. 


The  Hill. 

1.  The  child  may  now  be  led  to  represent  the  hill  by  model- 
ing it  in  the  sand. 

2.  Let  him  model  some  hill  known  to  him  by  name. 

3.  Call  attention  to  the  different  kinds  of  slopes. 

4.  Show  that  the  hills  and  valleys  must  occur  together. 
How  are  hills  covered  ?     Can  you  describe  White's  hill  ? 
What  does  water  do  to  hills  ? 

How  many  slopes  must  the  bed  of  a  stream  have  ? 

The  drops  of  rain  make  the  r///,  and  the  rill  its  little  fiirroiv. 
Rills  make  rivulets^  and  rivulets  make  a  gully  in  the  hillside. 
Rivulets  make  torrents,  and  these,  working  with  greater  force, 
tear  out  deep  gorges  in  the  slopes  of  the  hills. 

Valleys  in  plains  are  mainly  the  result  of  the  wear  of  the  sur- 
face by  running  water. 

But  the  great  valleys  of  the  earth  were  formed  by  folds  in 
the  crust. 

Such  a  lesson  on  local  geography  is  here  shown  : 


22  Mclp  Modeling  in  Geography. 

A  Primary  Lesson  on  Hills. 

The  purpose  of  the  lesson  may  be  to  make  a  beginning  in  the 
study  of  the  science  of  geography,  and  to  engage  the  young 
children  in  the  important  operation  of  learning  how  to  observe 
the  facts  in  nature.  To  this  work  the  children  will  be  able  to 
bring  all  their  knowledge  obtained  through  previous  observation 
of  the  earth's  surface  differences  ;  also  their  constructive  tenden- 
cies will  be  utilized.  The  teacher  should  bring  to  the  work  her 
own  experiences  as  a  child,  her  acquired  knowledge  of  child 
nature,  and  her  personal  knowledge  of  each  individual  in  the 
class. 

"■  All  the  little  boys  and  girls  in  Johnny's  class  may  go  to  the 
sand-table  and  work  in  the  sand  until  I  have  finished  the  number 
lesson  with  Charley's  class.  Let  me  see  how  quiet  you  can  be, 
and  what  you  can  do  with  the  sand." 

During  the  lesson  in  number,  the  little  children  to  whom  per- 
mission has  been  given  are  busily  but  quietly  engaged  in  heaping 
up  the  sand  in  piles.  After  the  dismissal  of  the  class  in  number, 
and  when  all  the  older  pupils  are  provided  with  work,  the  teacher 
passes  to  the  back  part  of  the  room  and  begins  the  lesson  in 
geography. 

''  Mabel,  what  have  3^ou  been  making?"  I  have  been  making 
a  sand-pile.  ''  John  and  Robert  have  made  two  large  heaps. 
What  do  you  call  yours,  boys  ?  "  Mine  looks  like  a  big  hill. 
This  is  the  hill  near  grandfather's  house.  ''  Agnes  has  made  a 
hill,  too."  It  is  a  little  hill.  A  small  hill.  A.  low  hill.  ''  We 
will  call  it  a  low  hill,  but  what  shall  we  say  of  this  one  that 
Henry  has  molded  ?  "  It  is  a  tall  hill.  We  may  call  it  a  large 
hill.  It  is  a  narrow  hill.  I  made  it  for  a  very  high  hill.  ''  Let 
us  call  it  a  high  hill.     Tell  me  something  about  yours,  Ida."    My 


Map  Modeling  in  Geography,  23 

hill  is  steep.  This  hill  is  flat  on  the  top.  ''  Robert,  what  can 
you  say  about  yours  ?  "  Mine  is  a  long,  steep  hill  like  grand- 
father's hill.     It  is  a  good  hill  to  slide  down  in  the  winter. 

'•  Did  you  ever  slide  down  a  steep  hill  ?  "  Tom  Jones  took  me 
with  him.  "I  would  be  afraid  to  go  down,"  says  Agnes.  "■  Did 
you  go  down  on  a  sled  ? "  ''  We  went  down  in  the  old  cutter, 
— oh,  so  fast !  "  says  Robert.  "  That  was  not  a  very  safe  thing 
to  do,  I  should  think.  What  made  the  cutter  go  so  fast,  Edith  ?  " 
The  hill  was  so  high  and  steep.  We  went  down  the  side  of  the 
hill.  In  the  winter,  when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground,  we  may 
slide  down  the  side  of  the  hill.  Water  runs  down  the  hill  and 
carries  the  sand  and  pebbles  along,  too.  In  the  summer.  ^'  Your 
sled  made  a  track  in  the  snow  when  you  were  carried  so  swiftly 
to  the  bottom.  Does  the  water  make  a  track  in  the  side  of  the 
hill  ?     Let  us  try  it  on  these  Httle  hills." 


24 


Primary  Molding  in  Sand. 


Fig.  io. 


arsson  v. 

Local  Geography. 

The  large  molding-board  is  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  damp  sand. 

Teacher. — Children,  you  see  that  the  sand  on  this  board  is  spread  out 
flat;  how  many  of  you  have  ever  seen  any  land  which  was  flat  or  level? 
Hands  rise. 

Charles.  — Y2X\\^r?>  meadow-lot  is  level. 

Henry. — Our  sheep-pasture  is  flat. 

Eddie. — Uncle  pastures  his  sheep  on  the  hill  back  of  the  barn. 

Teacher. — So  all  pastures  are  not  alike,  it  seems.  Etta,  what  do  we  call 
land  which  is  quite  flat  and  even? 

Etta. — A  large  piece  of  land  which  is  level  or  even  is  called  a  plain. 

Teacher. — Eddie  may  make  the  sand  in  the  molding-board  look  some- 
what like  his  uncle's  sheep-pasture.     Wi^at  did  he  call  the  pasture,  Etta? 

Etta. — He  said  that  it  was  a  hill,  (While  Eddie  is  working,  the  other 
children  watch  closely.     Eddie  finishes.) 

Teacher. — How  did  you  make  the  hill,  Eddie  ? 

Eddie. — I  heaped  the  sand  in  a  pile,  and  made  it  rise  a  little  at  a  time 
until  it  reached  this  steep  place  where  I  have  put  in  these  little  bits  of 
stone  for  rocks.     One  of  Uncle  Frank's  sheep  fell  over  the  rocks  last  spring. 


Primary  Molding  in  Sand,  25 

Teacher. — What  do  we  call  those  places  at  which  the  land  rises  up  ? 
Dick. 

Dtck.—WWXs. 

Teacher. — How  many  ever  saw  a  hill  as  steep  as  this  one  which  Eddie 
has  molded  ?    (Many  hands  rise.)     Charlie. 

Charles. — The  hill  by  Mr.  White's  house  is  nearly  as  steep  as  one  side 
of  that. 

James. — Dry  Hill  is  steeper.     'Tis  fun  to  slide  down  there  in  the  winter. 
Teacher. — Annie,  what  do  we  call  the  sides  of  hills  } 

Annie. — We  call  them  slopes. 

Teacher. — James,  what  shall  we  call  this  slope  on  the  left? 

James. — A  gentle  slope. 

Teacher. — And  this  one  on  the  right,  Gertie.'^ 

Gertie. — A  sharp  slope. 

Teacher. — Better,  an  abrupt  slope.      Eddie,  where  did  the  sheep  fall 
over  } 

Eddie  (pointing  out  the  place  on  the  molded  hill). — Here,  where  it  goes 
straight  down. 

Teacher. — What  do  we  call  a  place  where  the  slope  is  not  gradual,  but 
seems  to  go  straight  down  ?    Florence. 

Florence. — 1  do  not  know. 

Teacher. — Lottie  may  tell  us. 

Lottie. — It  is  called  a  precipice. 

Teacher. — Eddie's  uncle  pastures  sheep  on  the  hill ;  with  what  do  you 
think  that  hill  is  covered,  Dick.^ 

Dick. — There  must  be  plenty  of  grass. 

Eddie. — But  there  are  bushes  and  young  trees,  too. 

Teacher. — What  else  do  we  find  on  hills,  very  often  }    Charles. 

Charles. — The  top  of  White's  hill  is  covered  with  large  trees. 

Teacher. — James. 

Ja7nes. — Dry  Hill  has  no  covering  at  its  very  top — nothing  but  dry  rocks. 

Teacher. — Here  are  some  little  pebbles  and  bits  of  stone.    James  may 
mold  Dry  Hill.     Eddie. 

Eddie. — He  must  make  it  near  mine,  for  Dry  Hill  is  near  Uncle  Frank's 
pasture. 

Teacher. — Yes.     Let  us  call  the  sheep- pasture  Uncle  Frank's  hill.    Now, 
how  does  Dry  Hill  differ  from  Uncle  Frank's  hill  }    Etta. 

Etta. — It  is  much  higher. 

James, — The  slopes  are  steeper. 


26  Primary  Molding  in  Sand, 

Gertie. — It  has  no  grass  at  the  top. 

Dick. — The  rocks  are  larger. 

Teacher.— Q\i2.x\^s  may  mold  White's  hill.  Here  are  some  spruce  twigs 
for  trees.     Florence  may  mold  a  hill  too.     James  may  describe  Dry  Hill. 

Ja7ne5.—T\i&  hill  is  broad  and  high,  and  the  slopes  are  steep.  The  top 
is  dry  and  rocky. 

7>^r//<?r.— Eddie  may  describe  Uncle  Frank's  hill. 

^^^/^._The  hill  is  long  and  low,  and  is  covered  with  grass,  bushes,  and 
small  trees. 

Teacher.— Yio^^  does  White's  hill  differ  from  Uncle  Frank's  hill? 

Charles.— \X.  is  larger  and  higher. 

Annie. — The  slopes  are  not  so  steep. 

Florence. — It  is  covered  with  trees. 

Dick. — And  the  trees  are  large. 

Teacher. — Charles  may  describe  White's  hill. 

Charles. — It  is  a  large  and  high  hill,  but  the  slopes  are  not  very  steep. 
It  is  covered  with  trees,  which  are  very  large. 

Teacher. — Hills  have  many  uses.  You  may  not  know  a  great  many  of 
them  now,  but  you  can  tell  me  some.     Eddie. 

Eddie. — They  are  often  used  as  pastures. 

Charles. — Lumber  is  made  from  the  trees  which  grow  upon  them. 

Gertie. — Papa  says  that  the  stones  used  in  building  the  church  came 
from  the  side  of  Dry  Hill. 

Jajnes. — That  is  so;  and  I  think  that  the  lime  used  in  making  the 
mortar  was  made  by  burning  some  of  the  same  rock. 

Teacher. — Did  you  ever  see  masons  make  mortar,  James?  What  was 
mixed  with  the  lime  ? 

James. — Sand. 

Teacher. — Some  hills  are  formed  wholly  of  sand.  What  is  Uncle  Frank's 
hill  made  of,  Eddie  ? 

Eddie. — Dirt  and  stones,  just  the  same  as  the  one  which  I  molded. 

Teacher. — Annie  may  bring  me  a  cup  of  water.  I  pour  some  water  here 
on  the  top  of  this  hill.     Where  does  the  water  go  ?     Dick. 

Dick. — It  runs  down  along  the  slope  to  the  bottom. 

Teacher. — Charles. 

Charles. — The  sand  runs  along  too. 

Teacher. — When  does  water  fall  upon  the  real  hills,  Gertie? 

Gertie. — When  it  rains. 

Teacher. — Eddie. 


Primary  Molding  in  Sand,  27 

Eddie. — Sand  is  carried  down  the  real  hill,  too. 

Teacher. — Yes.  Water  wears  away  the  large  hills,  just  as  it  destroys  this 
little  hill  which  you  molded.  Dick,  did  the  water  stop  when  it  reached  the 
bottom  of  the  hill? 

Dick. — It  did  not  stop,  but  ran  along  in  a  little  stream  between  Dry  Hill 
and  the  hill  which  Florence  molded. 

Teacher. — We  will  call  the  little  stream  "Rocky  Brook."  Class  may 
tell  me  how  many  slopes  are  wetted  by  the  water. 

Class. — Three  slopes  are  wetted  by  Rocky  Brook. 

Teacher. — James  may  name  one. 

Jaines. — One  slope  of  Dry  Hill. 

Eddie. — A  slope  of of  Florence  Hill. 

Gertie. — The  water  ran  down  the  hill  which  Eddie  molded. 

Teacher. — Yes,  the  water  always  runs  along  one  slope ;  what  are  the 
other  slopes  for  }  Lottie. 

Lottie. — To  keep  the  water  in  at  the  sides. 

Teacher, — You  must  look  carefully  at  all  the  streams  after  this.  You 
will  always  find  three  slopes.  To-morrow  we  shall  study  some  high  hills. 
They  are  called 

Class. — Mountains.  {Dismissed.) 


28 


Primary  Molding  in  Sand. 


Fig.  II. 


The  Spring. 

1.  The  child  is  allowed  to  pour  some  water  upon  sand,  and  to 
find  that  the  moisture  soon  passes  through  it. 

The  water  sinks  through  the  sand  freely.  There  are  empty 
spaces  between  the  little  grains  of  sand,  and  the  water  readily 
passes  among  such  spaces. 

Sand  is  loose  and  porous  [pervious],  and  may  become  like  a 
kind  of  sponge,  filled  with  the  water  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

2.  Let  the  children  pour  some  water  upon  a  quantity  of  clay, 
and  find  that  the  tough  clay  does  not  allow  the  water  to  pass 
through. 

The  little  particles  of  clay  fit  close  to  each  other. 
Water  cannot  pass  through  the  mass  of  clay. 
Clay  is  impervious. 

Many  rocks  are  porous,  and  are  also  cracked  or  broken. 
Water  may  pass  down  through  the  beds  of  many  close-grained 


Primary  Molding  in  Sand. 


29 


rocks,  such  as  limestone  or  sandstone,  because  there  are  many- 
joints  or  cracks. 

3.  The  children  are  allowed  to  build  up  a  hill  of  clay,  and 


'Q!s^^^^ 


"-''^''.^^\VWh 


Fig.  12. 


make  its  slopes  quite  smooth.     Then  they  may  cover  it  with  a 
layer  of  mixed  sand  and  gravel. 

4.  At  the  base  of  the  hill,  scoop  out  a  part  of  the  sand  down 
to  the  layer  of  clay.  Pour  the  water  on  the  slope  at  the  top,  and 
after  a  few  hours  some  will  be  found  collected  in  the  little  hollow 
at  the  base. 

5.  Where  does  the  rain  go  ? 

Some  of  the  rain  soaks  down  into  the  ground  and  finds  its  way 
through  the  loose  soil  and  sand,  or  even  between  the  crevices  in 
the  harder  rocks,  down  to  the  layers  of  clay.  Here  it  will  follow 
the  line  until  it  comes  to  some  outlet  at  the  lower  surface,  and 
then  gushes  out  as  a  spring. 

When  this  water  does  not  appear  at  the  surface,  we  may  dig 
holes  called  wells,  and  catch  the  water. 


30  Primary  Molding  in  Sand. 

A  Brook  Basin. 

The  relief  form  of  the  school  district  should  be  studied 
through  actual  observation.  Land  surfaces  consist  of  slopes,  long 
or  short,  abrupt  or  gradual.  Model  such  slopes  in  sand.  Water 
partings  are  formed  by  the  meeting  of  slopes  at  their  upper  edges. 
Find  such  water  partings,  mold  and  describe  them.  How  is  the 
water  parting  related  to  drainage  ?  Slopes  meet  at  their  lower 
edges  and  give  valleys  and  river  beds.  Why  do  we  find  the 
water  here  ? 

Do  you  know  where  you  can  find  a  brook-basin  ?  Is  it  large 
or  small  ?  From  how  far  is  the  water  drained  into  this  brook  ? 
Why  does  the  water  move  so  fast  ?  So  slow  ?  What  determines 
the  direction  in  which  the  brook  flows  ?  The  size  ?  Of  what  use 
is  a  brook?  Can  you  describe  the  banks  and  the  mouth  of  the 
stream  ?     Make  a  sand  model  of  the  brook-basin. 

The  value  of  the  work  in  molding  will  be  increased  if  the 
teacher  can  give  the  children  the  advantage  of  numerous  "  Field 
Lessons  "  as  exemplified  on  page  52  under  "  Nature  Study."  The 
child  will  collect  the  individual  details  of  various  observations, 
and  see  the  mutual  relations  existing  among  them.  The  brook 
basin  will  become  an  intelligible  unit  of  measure  in  practical  geo- 
graphical study.  The  work  in  the  open  air  need  not  degenerate 
into  mere  romping  rambles,  but  must  have  definite  plan  and 
purpose.  A  successful  field  lesson  is  able  to  give  an  impetus  to 
the  whole  school-life  of  the  child.  Remember  that  formal  lessons 
are  not  absolutely  necessary  in  nature  study.  Much  can  be  done 
at  odd  moments,  and  the  child  will  often  do  much  more  at  home 
than  at  school.  Each  ramble  in  field  and  in  wood  becomes  a 
true  communion  with  nature.  Tell  nothing  that  the  children  can 
find  out  for  themselves. 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand. 


31 


Fig.  13. 


Mountains. 

[A  good  supply  of  clay  or  sand  should  be  in  the  molding-board.] 

Teacher. — Lottie,  what  are  very  high  hills  called  ? 

Lottie. — Very  high  hills  are  called  mountains. 

Teacher. — Elevations  of  land  rising  less  than  2000  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding country  are  called  hills  ;  those  2000  feet  or  more  in  height  are 
called  mountains.  How  high  is  the  steeple  of  the  Presbyterian  church, 
Charlie  ? 

Charlie. — My  brother  Ben  says  that  it  is  100  feet  high. 

Teacher. — How  many  such  steeples  would  it  take  to  reach  2000  feet  into 
the  air  ?     Gertie. 

Gertie. — Twenty. 

Teacher. — How  high  the  mountams  must  be  As  high  as  twenty  stee- 
ples, one  over  the  other.     Lottie. 

Lottie. — I  have  seen  a  mountain. 

Teacher. — Tell  us  about  it. 

Lottie. — Papa  and  I  went  to  the  top  of  Mount  McGregor  last  summer. 


32  Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand, 

Teacher. — How  did  you  reach  the  top  ? 

Lottie, — We  went  up  in  the  cars.  It  took  us  a  long  time  to  go  up  to 
the  top,  but  we  could  then  see  the  river,  and  it  seemed  very  near. 

Teacher. — What  is  the  name  of  the  river? 

Lottie. — The  Hudson.  Papa  said  it  was  not  near  to  us,  but  was  miles 
away. 

Teacher. — Why  do  so  many  people  visit  Mount  McGregor.^  Class. 
How  many  know?     (Hands  rise.)     Dick. 

Dick. — Because  General  Grant  died  there. 

Teacher. — Who  was  General  Grant  ?     Lottie. 

Lottie. — He  was  a  great  Union  general,  papa  said. 

Teacher. — Well,  what  is  it,  Charlie? 

Charlie.— Wv^^  Cameron,  I  wish  you  would  let  Lottie  mold  Mount 
McGregor. 

Teacher. — Lottie  may  mold  it.     (She  molds  the  mountain.) 

Lottie. — It  is  a  large  one. 

Teacher. — When  we  go  up  a  hill  or  mountain,  where  do  we  b:gin  to  as- 
cend ?    Class. 

Class. — At  the  base  or  bottom. 

Teacher. — You  may  call  that  part  of  the  base  at  which  we  begin  to  as- 
cend, the  foot.     Point  out  some  parts  of  the  mountain,  Gertie. 

Gertie. — This  is  the  top  (touching  it). 

Teacher. — You  may  call  that  part  the  sumjnit.  What  part  do  you  see, 
Etta  ? 

Etta. — I  see  the  sides. 

Teacher. — The  sides  are  often  called  the  slopes.  Class  may  name  with 
me  the  parts  of  a  mountain. 

Class  and  Teacher. — Slopes,  base,  foot,  and  summit. 

Teacher. — Lottie  has  finished  molding  the  mountain,  and  it  is  well  done. 
Did  you  see  any  other  mountains  ? 

Lottie.     There  were  others  near  it. 

Teacher. — Who  wants  to  mold  one  or  two  mountains  near  Mount  Mc- 
Gregor ? 

(Every  hand  up,  including  Lottie's,  although  the  little  girl  seems  to  have 
changed  places  with  the  teacher.) 

Teacher. — All  of  you,  of  course.  Eddie  may  mold  one  on  this  side,  and 
Annie  one  on  the  left.     Now  what  shall  we  have  ?     Class. 

Class. — A  row  of  mountains. 

Teacher. — Such  a  line  of  mountains  is  called  a  range  or  chain.  Well, 
little  critic  ? 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand,  33 

Lottie. — Eddie's  mountain  is  more  like  a  hill ;  it  should  be  higher. 

Eddie. — I  can  make  it  larger  and  higher. 

Teacher. — Yes,  I  would  do  so.  Most  mountains  are  joined  closer  to- 
gether at  their  bases  than  you  have  made  these ;  more  like  the  links  of  a 
chain.     Dick  may  now  fill  in  some  clay  between  the  mountains. 

Dick. — That  will  make  them  look  like  the  roof  of  a  house. 

Teacher. — Yes,  the  mountains  are  the  roof  of  our  home,  the  world- 
That  will  do,  Dick.  Do  not  fill  in  too  much,  but  leave  the  three  summits 
or  peaks. 

Charles  (who  wishes  to  be  useful  too). — May  I  bring  the  water.  Miss 
Cameron  } 

Teacher. — In  a  few  minutes,  Charlie.  If  I  should  pour  some  water  on 
the  top,  as  I  did  with  the  hills  that  we  molded,  where  would  it  run  } 

Charlie, — It  would  run  down  the  two  sides  of  the  chain  or  range. 

Teacher. — Can  any  one  tell  what  the  top  of  this  ridge  looks  like  .'*  Ger- 
tie. 

Gertie. — Something  like  a  roof  with  the  chimneys. 

Teacher. — We  call  the  top  of  the  ridge  the  crest.  Annie,  if  you  lived  on 
this  side  of  the  ridge  and  Ella  lived  on  the  other  side,  how  would  you  go  to 
her.? 

Annie. — I  should  pass  between  the  peaks. 

Teacher. — Why  ? 

Annie. — Because  it  is  lower  there. 

Teacher. — Sometimes  these  low  places  or  notches  become  deep  furrows 
down  the  slopes,  and  are  then  Q.2\\^di  passes.     You  may  tell  me  why,  Annie. 

Annie. — I  suppose  because  people /^jj  through  at  those  places. 

Teacher. — Charlie  may  bring  the  water,  now.  (Pouring  some  on  the 
ridge  between  the  mountains.)  You  see  that  this  water  makes  such  a  pass 
in  our  little  mountain  chain.  When  a  river  flows  through  a  mountain 
chain,  the  cut  is  called  a  gap  or  gorge.  There  are  many  in  this  country. 
Class  may  tell  me  what  becomes  of  the  water  which  flows  down  the  moun- 
tain sides. 

Class. — It  forms  rivers.  {Dismissed.) 


34  Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand. 


A  River  Valley. 

It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  actual  geographical  unit  of 
practical  study,  after  the  simpler  study  of  the  brook  basin,  will 
be  found  to  be  the  rzver  valley.  Around  the  valley  the  elements 
of  geographical  life  will  cluster,  and  this  natural  home  of  man  will 
become  the  historical  unit  as  well.  A  true  concentration  of  ef- 
fort and  correlation  of  study  will  thus  be  effected.  The  special 
study  of  a  small  portion  of  the  earth  will  be  of  more  value  to  the 
student  in  geography  than  a  less  specialized  study  of  extended 
areas.  This  is  true  at  least  in  regard  to  the  earlier  efforts  in  the 
attainment  of  such  geographical  concepts  as  are  necessary  to  the 


KEWWOI^LD  ^-r^^-  OLD  WORLD 


earnest  student  of  the  science.  To.  the  pupils  in  the  schools  of 
Western  Pennsylvania,  the  study  of  either  the  Alleghany  or  the 
the  Monongahela  River  will  be  of  greater  value  educationally 
than  the  study  of  more  distant  streams.  All  of  the  main  facts  of 
physical  and  commercial  geography  may  be  developed  and  illus- 
trated with  little  apparent  effort,  because  with  the  child  you  are 
proceeding  in  a  strictly  logical  manner.  The  natural  historical 
associations  may  be  brought  out  in  their  proper  relations,  and  the 
whole  unit  be  used  as  a  knoiwn  quantity  by  which  other  units,  to 
the  child  unknown,  may  be  brought  into  his  mental  horizon. 

If  we  work  upward  and  outward  in  this  manner,  the  final  and 
grander  concept  of  the  world  itself— as  a  great  valley  with  its 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand.  35 

ocean  river,  the  Atlantic — comes  upon  the  mind,  to  unify  not  only 
the  geography,  but  the  history  of  the  world  (Fig.  14). 

''  Rivers  are  the  most  important  aqueous  agents  in  modifying 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  Springs,  as  they  issue  into  open  day, 
naturally  seek  a  lower  level ;  and  numbers  of  them  meeting  in 
one  channel  form  streams,  which  again  join  in  some  lower  valley 
and  produce  rivers  of  various  sizes.  Rivers  thus  form  a  species 
of  natural  drains  by  which  the  excess  of  moisture  that  falls  upon 
the  land  is  returned  to  the  sea.  They  are  of  all  dimensions ;  in 
breadth  from  a  few  feet  to  many  miles ;  so  shallow  that  a  boy 
could  wade  them,  or  so  deep  as  to  float  the  largest  ships.  In 
length  of  course,  they  range  from  forty  miles  to  as  many  hundred 
miles." 


36 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand. 


Fig.  15. 


ILtuuon  X. 

Volcanoes. — I. 

**  What  goes  into  the  head  through  the  eyes  never  comes  out  again." — German 
Proverb. 

An  Active  Volcano. 

Procure  some  molder's  clay,  and  dampen  it  until  it  will  pack 
when  pressed  in  the  hand.  Sand  or  common  red  clay  will  do 
very  well  in  place  of  the  other,  but  molder's  clay  is  cleaner.  Pul- 
verize an  ounce  of  chlorate  of  potash,  and  then  mix  it  thoroughly 
with  half  an  ounce  of  dry  white  sugar.  Procure  a  small  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid  (H^SO^). 

Now  build  up  a  small  pile  of  the  clay,  and  scoop  out  from  the 
centre  a  part,  as  in  this  figure.     (Fig.  15.) 

Put  a  piece  of  paper,  about  four  inches  in  diameter,  in  the 
bottom  of  this  hole  ;  then  put  in  the  mixed  potash  and  sugar. 

Take  a  pencil  or  pen-holder  (Fig.  16),  and  run  it  through  a 
circle  of  paper  about  as  large  as  the  first  one  ;  press  it  down  upon 
the  mixture.  Pack  the  clay  carefully  down  upon  the  paper  and 
about  the  pencil,  turning  the  pencil  around  now  and  then  in 
order  that  it  may  be  removed  at  last. 

The  volcano  will  now  be  complete  (Fig.  17),  with  the  mixture 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand. 


37 


three  or  four  inches  from  the  top,  and  a  clear  hole  leading  down 
to  it. 


To  light  the  volcano,  take  a  long  straw  or  a  piece  of  glass  tub- 
ing and  drop  a  small  quantity  of  the  sulphuric  acid  down  the  hole. 


■I^'^^&M^,. 


Fig.  17. 

Do  not  look  into  the  hole  to  see  about  the  eruption.     It  will  generally 
occur  in  a  minute  or  less  after  the  acid  is  poured  in.     If  it  does 


38  Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand. 

not  go,  put  in  more  acid.  A  very  little  cold  water,  added  to  the 
acid  just  before  it  is  used,  will  generally  expedite  matters.  Try 
a  little  of  the  mixture  in  a  shovel  before  you  build  a  volcano,  and 
the  acid  can  thus  be  adjusted.  With  the  ordinary  commercial 
sulphuric  acid,  however,  no  trouble  should  be  experienced. 
Sometimes  the  acid  is  too  strong,  and  should  be  diluted  by  pour- 
ing some  of  the  acid  into  a  small  quantity  of  water. 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand, 


39 


iScKi* 


Fig.  i8. 


Volcanoes. — II. 

Vesuvius,  A.D.  79. 

Model  upon  the  molding-board  the  details  of  Vesuvius  and  its 
surroundings,  including  the  bay  of  Naples  and  the  Islands  Ischia 
and  Procida.  After  the  volcano  has  been  prepared  according  to 
the  plan  before  given,  mold  the  ridge  S,  of  Mount  Somma  the 
companion  peak  as  seen  from  Naples  (N).  Pieces  of  blue  string 
may  be  laid  to  represent  the  streams  upon  which  Naples  and 
some  of  the  other  towns  are  situated  (Fig.  18).  Naples  may  be 
represented  by  a  square  of  colored  paper,  and  the  buried  cities 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  by  stars  or  triangles  cut  from  paper 
of  a  different  color.  The  modeHng  should  be  done  while  the  at- 
tention of  the  class  is  held  at  each  point,  the  teacher  placing  the 
pieces  of  paper  in  position,  or  allowing  the  children  to  place  them 
according  to  instructions.  Following  will  be  the  lesson  some- 
what in  detail : 


40  Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand, 

The  teacher  asks  questions  about  the  shape  of  volcanoes,  and 
develops  the  difference  between  mountains  and  volcanoes.  These 
"  send  out  fire,  smoke,  and  ashes  from  the  top."  Yes,  John  is 
right,  "  sometimes  hot  stones,  gases,  steam,  and  lava  are  thrown 
out  too."  And  Mabel  says  that  these  "  do  not  always  come  out 
at  the  top,  but  may  sometimes  burst  out  at  the  sides."  Can 
any  of  you  tell  me  what  lava  is  ?  Yes,  *•  melted  rock."  Did  you 
ever  see  any.^  Here  are  three  pieces.  This  hard  piece  John's 
"  father  brought  from  Italy,"  and  here  is  a  softer  piece  which 
came  from  Iceland.  But  James  **  found  this  soft,  light  piece 
down  in  Mr.  Grove's  marble-shop."  It  is  so  light  that  it  will  float 
on  the  water.  "  Mr.  Grove  said  it  would  float,  and  that  it  was 
used  to  polish  marble."  Yes ;  what  did  he  call  it  ?  **  Pumice." 
Most  pumice-stone  comes  from  the  Lipari  islands,  where  there 
is  a  hill  of  pumice  looo  feet  high.  (Find  these  islands  on  the 
map,  and  to-morrow  tell  me  where  they  are.) 

Where  is  the  volcano  Vesuvius,  Charles  ?  *'  In  Italy,  near  the 
Bay  of  Naples."  Very  well.  More  than  1800  years  ago  there 
were  two  very  beautiful  cities  just  at  the  base  of  Mount  Vesuvius. 
They  were  just  here  at  the  foot,  one  where  I  put  this  blue  paper 
star  (P),  the  other  where  I  put  my  finger.  Mabel  may  put  the 
red  star  there  (H). 

One  bright  day  the  people  in  these  cities  were  working  away. 
The  soldiers  were  on  guard  at  the  gates ;  the  baker  was  baking 
bread ;  the  miller  was  grinding  wheat ;  the  tailor  making 
clothes  ;  and  some  of  the  ladies  were  combing  their  hair  with 
queer  little  combs  of  bone,  and  looking  into  little  hand-mirrors 
of  polished  steel.  Suddenly  Vesuvius  sent  out  streams  of  lava 
and  clouds  of  ashes,  and  the  two  cities  were  buried  out  of  sight. 
(The  modeled  Vesuvius  may  be  ignited  now.)  Our  little  hill  of 
fire  was  not  much  like  the  great  mountain  in  power,  but  the  fire 
came  out  somewhat  as  it  comes  from  Vesuvius. 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand. 


41 


ipK 


:s.  v:;'\ 


*::5^r- 


42  Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand, 

Would  you  like  to  know  the  names  of  the  two  cities  ?  Here 
they  are  upon  the  blackboard,  and  you  may  all  repeat  them  with 
me: 

POMPEII. 
HERCULANEUM. 

What  a  strange  word  the  first  is,  with  two  i's  at  the  end.  Not 
many  words  are  like  that.     Let  us  pronounce  it : 

Pom-pa'-ye. 
This  city  was   partly  uncovered  some  years  ago,  and   travelers 
can  now  go  into  many  of  the  houses  in  which  the  people  lived  so 
long  ago. 

Can  you  tell  me  the  name  of  a  modern  city  near  Vesuvius  ? 
Yes,  ''  Naples."  Let  us  make  a  little  outline  upon  the  board. 
Charles  may  write  the  names  of  the  two  buried  or  dead  cities  ; 
James,  the  modern  city ;  and  Jennie  the  names  of  the  volcano 
and  country. 


[  Buried  or  dead  cities^  79  A.D, 


Pompeii, 

herculaneum, 

Naples,  Modern  City. 

Vesuvius,  Volcano. 

Italy,  Country. 

Lipari  Islands,  (?)    Answer  to-morrow^ 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand.  43 

ILesson  XKK. 

Volcanoes. — III. 

Teacher. —  How  many  can  tell  me  something  about  the  Lipari  Islands? 

Several  of  the  pupils  mention  the  points  which  they  learned  in  the  preceding  lesson. 

Etta. — I  asked  brother  Tom  to  show  me  where  to  find  them,  and  he  told 
me  to  look  on  the  map  of  Europe,  a  little  north  of  Sicily. 

Teacher. — That  is  right.     Point  them  out  upon  the  map,  Etta.     James. 

James. — Father  says  that  we  get  currants  and  figs  from  some  of  these 
islands. 

Teacher. — Yes.  I  am  glad  that  your  parents  and  brothers  are  so  much 
interested  in  your  work.  Some  of  the  islands  produce  many  fruits.  One, 
however,  is  a  volcanic  cone  in  the  midst  of  the  sea.  It  is  called  Stromboli, 
and  has  been  constantly  in  eruption  for  more  than  2000  years.  Helen, 
can  you  tell  me  the  name  of  the  sea  which  surrounds  this  volcano  ? 

Helen. — The  Mediterranean. 

Teacher. — What  two  grand  divisions  does  this  sea  separate,  Charles.? 

Charles. — The  Mediterranean  separates  Europe  from  Africa. 

Teacher. — Hope  may  find  on  the  large  map  another  sea  which  separates 
two  grand  divisions. 

The  pupil  points  to  the  Red  Sea  ;  and  thus  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  East  Indian  Seas  are  suc- 
cessively found.  If  the  dividing  seas  of  Asia  and  Australia  are  not  seen  as  such,  the  teacher  calls  at- 
tention to  them. 

Teacher. — Dick  may  name  the  largest  ocean. 

Z>/<f/^.— The  Pacific. 

Teacher. — Now,  most  of  the  volcanoes  of  the  world  are  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  or  near  its  borders,  and  nearly  all  of  the  other  volcanoes  are  in  these 
middle  seas,  or  very  near  them.  Indeed,  the  Pacific  has  been  called  the  sea 
of  fire.     Can  you  tell  me  why,  Gertie  } 

Gertie. — Because  it  has  so  many  volcanoes. 

Teacher. — I  will  write  on  the  blackboard  an  outline,  and  you  may  copy 
it  into  your  blank-books  afterwards,  but  do  not  forget  what  it  means. 
I.  Volcanoes  are  found  : 

1.  In  the  Pacific. 

2.  Along  the  borders  of  the  Pacific. 

3.  In  the  Middle  Seas. 

4.  A  few  in  the  other  oceans. 

Lottie  may  tell  us  the  names  of  three  volcanoes  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Lottie, — Vesuvius,  Etna,  and  Stromboli. 


44 


Intermediate  Molding  in  Sand. 


Teacher. — When  you  find  the  names  of  more  valcanoes  as  you  study 
geography,  you  may  write  them  in  your  books  in  the  proper  place.     Thus  : 

II.  Volcanoes  in  the  Mediterranean  (Middle  Sea). 

1 .  Vesuvius. 

2.  Etna. 

3.  StromboU. 

I  will  now  show  you    something   about   one   of  the  gases   sent  forth  by 
volcanoes.     (Fig.  20.) 

The  teacher  here  puts  some  small  pieces  of  marble  or  old  mortar  into  a  common  pickle-bottle,  and 
fits  into  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  a  cork  through  which  a  f  iece  of 
glass  tubing  has  been  pushed.  A  short  piece  of  rubber  tubing  is 
fitted  to  the  glass  tubing.  The  cork  with  its  tubing  is  then  taken 
out,  and  a  gill  of  mixed  sulphuric  acid  and  water  is  poured  over  the 
marble.  The  teacher  replaces  the  cork,  and  then  collects  the  gas  by 
inserting  the  rubber  tube  into  the  mouth  of  another  bottle.  (The 
apparatus  may  be  prepared  by  one  of  the  bright  boys.     Try  one.) 

James  may  light  the  candle.     Now  pour  out  the  gas 
directly  over  the  flame.   Class,  what  has  happened  ? 
Class. — The  gas  has  put  out  the  candle. 
Teacher.— Why  could  James  pour  the  gas  down 
upon  the  candle,  Lottie  } 

Lottie. — Because  the  gas  is  heavier  than  air. 
Teacher. — I  have  now  collected  some  more  of 
the  gas.     Charles  may  pour  this  clear  lime-water 
into  the  bottle  of  gas.     What  change  has  taken 
place,  Dick  ? 

Dick. — The  water  is  now  white. 
Teacher. — This  gas  is  called  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  may  be  detected  by 
its  power  to  turn  clear  lime-water  white.     Here  is  a  tumbler  filled  with 
lime-water.     Florence  may  blow  through  this  glass  tube  into  the  water. 
Helen. — Oh,  it  turns  white  ! 

Teacher. — But  is  Florence  a  little  volcano  ?  The  same  gas  is  given  off 
by  the  lungs.  We  shall  learn  more  about  this  in  Physiology.  You  may 
copy  this  sentence : 

Some  volcanoes  send  forth  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  the  same  kind  of  gas 
is  exhaled  by  animals. 

Class    may  take    Lesson    XVI.,  subject,   "Mountains   and    Mountain 
Ranges."     Turn  to  the  map  of  South  America,  and  learn  the  names  of  the 
principal  ranges.     Locate  the  volcanoes. 
Lottie. — I  have  found  one  already. 


Fig.  20. 


Nature  Study.  45 


There  should  be  a  series  of  lessons  upon  the  character  of  the 
surface,  the  relation  of  slopes,  brook  basins,  river  basins,  valleys, 
hills,  and  the  other  ways  in  which  the  correlation  of  form  and 
geography  is  manifested.  It  has  been  said  that  a  grain  of  sand  is 
a  thought  of  God.  We  need  not  call  the  attention  of  the  child 
to  the  distant  and  seemingly  more  marvelous  things  in  nature 
before  he  gains  some  knowledge  of  the  marvels  under  his  feet. 
The  real  miracles  lie  nearest  at  hand.  Let  him  study  the  sand, 
the  gravel,  and  the  clay.  How  were  these  materials  formed, 
whence  were  they  derived,  and  by  what  means  were  they  laid 
down  in  their  present  position  ?  How  came  the  different  rocks 
to  occupy  their  places  in  the  earth  ?  Are  there  any  changes  now 
going  forward  on  the  face  of  the  globe  ?  Study  the  action  of 
brooks  and  rivers  as  they  bear  away  the  mud,  the  sand,  and  the 
gravel  in  one  place,  and  deposit  them  in  another.  Do  not  the 
rains  and  frosts,  the  winds,  and  other  agents  act  upon  the  solid 
rocks  of  the  earth,  and  make  them  crumble  down,  thus  forming 
new  soil?  Open  the  eyes  of  the  child  to  some  of  the  wonders 
that  lie  all  around  him.  Perhaps  we  may  not  be  able  to  teach 
them  to  "see  nature,"  but  we  can  lead  them  so  that  they  may 
not  lose  the  love  of  nature  they  already  have.  Every  child  has  a 
quick  eye  for  the  curious  and  interesting  things  in  the  fields  and 
woods.  Keep  up  the  curiosity  of  the  child,  and  let  the  interest 
— that  Herbartian  basis  of  all  success  in  teaching — keep  well 
ahead  of  the  knowledge.  Encourage  the  children  to  bring  to 
you  whatever  to  them  seems  curious  and  interesting  from  their 


46  Nature  Study. 

walks  in  the  fields  and  woods.  A  well-known  naturalist  has  said  : 
*'  One  throb  of  love  of  nature  which  you  can  awaken  in  the 
child's  heart  is  worth  any  number  of  dry  facts  which  you  can  put 
into  his  head." 

"  O  Nature,  gracious  mother  of  us  all ! 
Within  thy  bosom  myriad  secrets  lie 
Which  thou  surrenderest  to  the  patient  eye 
That  seeks  and  waits." 


STUDIES. 

(Specimens  of  children's  work  in  Model  School.) 

The  work  here  given  is  by  the  pupils  of  the  Practice  School 
of  a  State  Normal  School  in  Pennsylvania.  The  ages  range  from 
eight  years  to  ten  years.  The  lessons  concern  that  which  may 
be  presumed  to  be  most  familiar  to  the  children — their  own  lo- 
cality. 

An  Observation  Lesson. 

Watching  a  Crane. 

Paul  and  Carl  went  to  spend  an  afternoon  playing  along  the 
creek.  When  they  came  within  sight  of  the  water,  they  saw  a 
large  bird  standing  in  the  water  near  a  large  rock.  "  Oh  look," 
said  Paul,  "there  is  a  goose  standing  in  the  water."  "Where?" 
said  Carl.     "  Don't  you  see  it  over  there  by  the  large  rock  ?  " 


Fig.  21. 
**  It  must  be  asleep  ioK  it  stands  so  still." 

Pearl  Watson,  8  yrs. 


Nature  Study.  47 

(Fig.  21.)  "  It  must  be  asleep,  for  it  stands  so  still."  "  Oh,  I  see  it 
now  ;  but  it  is  too  large  for  a  goose.  See  its  long  legs  and  neck. 
It  is  too  tall  for  a  goose."  '' Oh,  yes,"  said  Paul,  "so  it  is.  I  won- 
der what  bird  it  is,  and  why  it  stands  there  on  one  foot."  "  I 
think  it  is  looking  down  into  the  water  after  something."  "  It 
can't  be  a  goose,  or  duck,  or  chicken,"  said  Paul.  "  I  believe," 
said  Carl,  "that  is  the  same  kind  of  a  bird  my  father  shot  some- 
where along  Wolf  Creek  one  day.  It  was  very  tall,  and  he  called 
it  a  crane''  "Oh  see,"  cried  Paul,  "it  has  caught  something 
and  has  it  in  its  mouth.  I  thought  the  bird  was  asleep,  but  it 
must  have  been  watching  for  what  it  has  just  caught."  "  The 
bird  has  caught  a  young  frog,"  said  Carl,  "  and  it  is  about  to  fly 
away."  The  crane  became  frightened,  and  flew  away  as  the  boys 
came  up.  It  went  to  some  place  where  it  could  eat  the  frog  in 
peace. 

The  Study   of  the    Common   Rocks. 

Lessons  should  be  given  on  minerals,  including  soils,  dust, 
common  rocks,  metals,  etc.  The  child  must  be  taught  to  grade 
the  various  substances  in  regard  to  common  properties,  such  as 
color,  touch,  weight,  hardness,  etc.  For  instance,  under  the  lat- 
ter, the  judgment  is  cultivated  by  estimates  based  upon  compara- 
tive degrees  of  hardness  of  certain  substances,  others  being  taken 
as  standards. 

SCALE   OF    HARDNESS. 

No.  I.  May  be  readily  scratched  with  the ^;2!^^r  ;/^//.  [Clay, 
etc.] 

No.  2.  Is  not  impressed  with  finger  nail ;  but  does  not 
scratch  a  plate  of  copper.     [Rock  salt.] 

No.  3.  Scratches  a  piece  of  copper^  but  does  not  scratch  glass, 
[Limestone.] 


48  Nature  Study, 

No.  4.  Scratches  glass.     [Quartz,  sandstone,  etc.] 

No.  5.  Would  scratch  quartz.     [Diamond.] 

The  pupils  are  encouraged  to  collect  specimens  of  the  com- 
mon rocks,  and  to  attend  to  the  proper  labeling  of  the  various 
pieces  of  rock,  etc.  Under  this  head  coal  is  studied,  although  of 
vegetable  origin.  Drawings  of  all  important  specimens  should 
be  made. 

Quartz. 

Quartz  is  very  hard,  and  will  scratch  glass  easily. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  quartz.     I   know  six  kinds.     There 
are  crystal,  milky,  smoky,  glassy,  flint,  and  moss  agate. 
Smoky  quartz  looks  like  smoked  glass. 
Milky  quartz  is  almost  pure  white. 
Glassy  quartz  looks  like  glass,  but  is  much  harder. 
Some  flint  looks  like  ashes,  because  it  is  gray. 
The  crystal  is  very  clear  and  beautiful. 
Quartz  is  the  hardest  of  the  common  minerals. 

Granite. 

Three  minerals  are  found  in  common  granites,  and  they  are 
quartz^  feldspar^  and  7nica. 

I  can  find  the  hard  quartz  in  the  granite. 

Mica  splits  into  very  thin  layers.  I  can  pick  up  the  scales 
with  the  blade  of  my  knife. 

This  mineral  is  used  in  the  doors  of  the  stove  to  let  the  light 
shine  through. 

I  cannot  scratch  the  quartz  with  my  knife,  for  the  mineral  is 
harder  than  steel. 

Steel  will  make  a  slight  impression  on  feldspar. 

I  can  see  the  edges  of  the  crystals  of  feldspar. 

This  piece  of  granite  has  cream-colored  feldspar,  but  the  min- 
eral is  often  red. 


Nature  Study.  49 

Granite  is  a  fine  building  stone. 

True  granite  is  not  arranged  in  layers.     It  is  unstratified. 

Gneiss  is  a  rock  resembling  granite.     It  is  a  stratified  rock. 

Sandstone. 

Here  is  a  piece  of  sandstone. 

It  is  formed  of  small  grains  of  quartz.  The  little  grains  will 
scratch  glass. 

Some  of  them  are  quite  sharp,  but  some  are  rounded  and  dull. 
They  are  really  very  small  pebbles. 

This  sandstone  has  a  yellow  color,  and  is  streaked  with  rust 
marks. 

There  is  iron  in  this  rock,  and  such  sandstone  is  not  good  for 
building  purposes. 

Here  is  a  fine  gray  stone  brought  from  Berea,  Ohio. 

It  is  a  fine  sandstone  of  excellent  quality. 

Grindstones  are  made  from  fine  sandstone. 

Sandstone  is  found  arranged  in  layers. 

Hornblende. 

Here  is  some  hornblende. 

It  is  dark  like  the  black  mica,  but  will  not  scale  off  when  I 
test  it  with  my  knife-blade. 

This  hornblende  is  greenish  black  in  color. 

The  streak  of  this  mineral  is  pale  bluish  green. 

There  is  some  quartz  in  this  other  rock  besides  the  horn- 
blende. 

I  can  find,  also,  some  feldspar. 

This  rock  is  syenite^  but  quarrymen  call  it  granite.  It  came 
from  Quincy  in  Massachusetts. 

Limestone. 

Here  is  a  large  piece  of  limestone. 

It  has  no  grains  like  those  of  the  granite  and  gneiss. 


50  Nature  Study, 

The  knife  will  scratch  the  stone. 

This  piece  of  the  stone  is  very  soft,  but  some  kinds  of  lime- 
stone are  hard. 

There  are  some  shells  in  this  piece  of  limestone. 

Lime  is  made  from  this  kind  of  stone.  Mortar  is  made  of 
lime  and  sand. 

When  I  poured  some  acid  upon  the  limestone,  white  bubbles 
were  formed  on  the  top  of  the  stone. 

We  call  this  action  effervescence. 

Limestone  is  a  very  useful  kind  of  rock. 

Marble, 

Marble  is  one  kind  of  limestone. 

This  piece  is  white,  but  there  are  many  kinds  of  marble  that 
are  not  white. 

Marble  is  used  for  monuments,  mantels,  and  the  most  beauti- 
ful buildings. 

Sculptors  use  fine  white  marble. 

Some  kinds  of  marble  are  gray,  blue,  black,  or  red. 

A  Lesson  on  Coal. 

In  the  work  of  this  lesson,  specimens  of  the  different  kinds  of 
coal  were  brought  into  the  class-room  by  the  pupils.  A  general 
talk  between  teacher  and  pupils  developed  the  appearance,  uses, 
kinds,  modes  of  obtaining,  and  other  facts  concerning  the  sub- 
stance. A  few  experiments  were  performed  to  show  how  gas 
and  coke  are  derived  from  coal.  A  common  clay  pipe  was  filled 
with  soft  coal,  and  then  the  top  of  the  bowl  was  covered  with 
clay  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  gas.  This  was  then  heated, 
and  when  the  gas  began  to  escape  through  the  stem,  a  lighted 
match  was  applied.  The  alcohol  lamp  was  used  to  furnish  the 
heat  necessary.  After  the  gas  was  burned,  the  bowl  of  the  pipe 
was  broken,  and  the  coke  taken  out. 


Nature  Study. 


51 


Some  facts  to  be  brought  out  in  the  lesson  are : 

1.  Pennsylvania  is  the  Great  Coal  State. 

2.  Two  principal  kinds  of  coal  are  anthracite  (Fig.  22),  and 
bituminous  (Fig.  23). 


Fig.  22. — Anthracite  Coal. 


Alice  Wilson,  10  yrs. 


3.  Anthracite  coal  is  found  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  and  in 
Rhode  Island. 

4.  It  is  much  harder  than  bituminous  coal. 

5.  Sulphur  is  often  found  in  bituminous  coal,  and  causes  the 
yellow  streaks  in  some  coal. 


Fig.  23. — Bituminous  Coal. 

Clare  Leighner,  9  yrs. 

6.  Cannel  coal  (Fig.  24),  burns  with  a  very  steady  flame,  and, 
indeed,  was  first  called  candle  coal  from  this  cause. 

7.  Some  coal  contains  much  shale  and  slate. 

8.  Coke  is  made  by  burning  good  bituminous  coal  in  ovens. 


52  Nature  Study, 

9.  It  is  a  most  valuable  fuel  for  use  in  furnaces  for  the  making 
of  fine  grades  of  iron  and  steel. 


Fig.  24. — Cannel  Coal. 

Clarence  Kiester,  8  yrs. 

10.  Many  coal  products  are  very  useful. 

11.  Coal  is  composed  largely  of  carboUy  of  which  graphite, 
used  in  making  pencils,  is  a  purer  form. 

12.  Diamonds  are  pure  carbon. 

A  Field  Lesson. — I. 

When  Agassiz  held  the  greatest  American  school  of  science 
on  that  little  Island  of  Penikese  off  the  south  coast  of  Massachu- 
setts, he  stated  vital  truth  when  he  said,  *'  Study  nature,  not 
books."  So,  also,  in  his  reply  to  the  publisher,  "  It  is  not  school- 
books  we  want,  but  students,"  he  showed  the  crying  need  of  a 
return  to  natural  methods  in  the  acquisition  of  true  scientific 
knowledge.  To  the  teacher  of  geography  the  open  book  of  na- 
ture is  the  best  text-book  to  use  in  rendering  children  familiar 
with  many  geographical  terms,  and  giving  primary  notions  which 
may  be  expanded  through  the  exercise  of  the  natural  modifying 
imagination. 

Results  obtained  from  field  lessons  will  depend  in  a  great 
measure  upon  the  degree  of  school  spirit  kept  among  the  children 
during  the  work.  Children  are  apt  to  be  led  aside  from  the  les- 
son, and   the  teacher  must  have  very  definite  purpose  in  order 


Nature  Study. 


53 


to  give  effective  instruction  in  the  field.  The  study  of  a  brook 
and  its  basin  was  the  object  in  view  in  the  lesson  here  reported, 
but  rain  interfered  with  the  comfortable  completion  of  the  work. 
Still,  this  may  have  fixed  certain  ideas  concerning  rainfall.  Ob- 
servations were  made  during  one  hour.     The  children  were  told : 

1.  To  keep  sharp  and  open  eyes, 

2.  To  note  in  their  blank-books  things  seen, 

3.  To  draw  pictures  of  subjects  observed, 

4.  To  trace  the  brook  in  its  course, 

5.  To  make  a  written  report  next  day. 

From  the  mass  of  reports  handed  in  at  beginning  of  class- 
work  next  day  the  following  observations  have  been  selected : 


There  are  three  slopes  forming  the  basin  of  the  brook. 
The  source  of  this  brook  is  a  large  spring. 
The  source  of  the  brook,  Fig.  25. 


54 


Nature  Study. 


The  spring  is  walled  about,  and  supplies  a  watering-trough 
with  pure,  cold  water. 

Mr.  Grine  owns  the  spring. 

The  brook  crosses  the  road,  and  runs  through  the  fields  into 
the  woods. 

It  is  joined  by  a  smaller  stream  that  rises  in  a  swamp,  and  by 
another  which  rises  in  a  small  pond. 


Fig.  26. 

In  some  places  the  brook  flows  through  swampy  land,  and  in 
others  through  rich  brown  land. 

We  saw  a  farmer  ploughing  the  land. 

Corn  was  planted  in  that  field  last  year,  but  this  year  the  man 
said  he  would  plant  potatoes. 

Farmers  do  not  plant  the  same  crops  in  a  field  each  year. 

The  brook  gives  plenty  of  good  water  to  all  the  plants  of  the 
field. 


Field  Lessons,  55 

The  raimlrops  fall  upon  the  dry  ground,  and  we  do  not  see 
where  they  go. 

Once  we  lost  the  brook  itself,  for  it  went  under  the  ground 
for  a  long  distance. 

But  we  could  see  the  green  grass  over  it,  and  so  we  still  fol- 
lowed it. 

Soon  we  found  two  places  where  the  water  came  bubbling  out 
of  the  ground,  and  the  brook  ran  on  and  on. 

When  the  raindrop  falls  upon  the  ground,  it  soaks  through  the 
spongy  soil  and  joins  other  drops  to  flow  into  the  brook,  or  to 
come  out  at  the  spring. 

In  the  woods  two  brooks  came  together  and  formed  one  large 
stream. 

We  went  into  the  woods,  and  saw  the  falls  of  this  stream. 
(Fig.  26,  "  The  Falls.") 

The  stream  divided  below  the  falls,  and  we  saw  a  small  island. 

A  large  tree  had  fallen  across  the  stream  and  made  a  fine  bridge. 

The  boys  and  girls  crossed  the  brook  by  this  bridge. 

In  the  woods  the  banks  of  the  stream  became  steep. 

Soon  the  rain  came  down  very  fast  and  we  started  home. 

We  saw  streams  of  water  running  along  the  road.  When  the 
rain  cannot  soak  into  the  ground,  the  water  runs  off  along  the  top. 

There  was  some  sand  in  the  brook,  and  many  small  pebbles. 
The  pebbles  were  smooth  and  rounded. 

The  water  in  the  brook  soon  became  muddy. 

We  could  not  trace  the  brook  any  farther  than  the  falls,  be- 
cause the  day  was  very  unpleasant.     But  we  did  not  loose  our  fun. 

The  flowers  looked  up  at  the  rain. 

We  leave  to  the  teacher  the  working-up  of  the  material  obtained  for  language-work,  geography,  etc. 
On  some  pleasant  afternoon  we  shall  go  farther  down  the  stream.  The  pictures  are  by  a  lad  of  four- 
teen and  a  girl  nine  years  of  age. 


56  Field  Lessons, 

A  Field  Lesson. — II. 

[children's  report  of  the  same.] 

The  children  were  taken  out  by  their  teachers  for  a  geographi- 
cal ramble  or  "  Field  Lesson."  The  purpose  was  the  tracing  of 
a  brook  from  source  to  mouth.  Rain  interfered  with  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work,  but  some  data  of  importance  were  obtained. 
Written  reports  of  observations  made  were  the  order  for  next 
day  in  the  language  classes ;  while  in  the  geography  class,  tabu- 
lated statements  of  the  points  noted  were  written  upon  the 
board.  Pictures  drawn  in  pencil  were  mdidQ  from  the  rough  field 
sketches  of  the  note-books. 

Our  Walk. 

When  we  went  for  our  walk,  we  saw  a  farmer  plowing  his 
field  to  plant  corn.  After  a  while  he  stopped,  and  leaned  upon 
the  handle  of  the  plow.  An  old  man  and  a  little  boy  were  stand- 
ing by  the  fence  watching  the  man  plow  the  field.  A  basket  of 
potatoes  was  near  by.  The  potatoes  were  cut  into  small  pieces, 
ready  to  be  planted.  We  walked  along  the  road  and  soon  came 
to  a  new  house  and  barn  that  some  men  were  still  working  at. 
We  stopped  and  talked  about  what  the  men  were  doing.  They 
were  carpenters  and  painters.  Then  we  went  down  the  road, 
over  a  large  hill,  until  we  came  to  a  large  spring  belonging  to  Mr. 
Grine.  The  spring  was  walled  about  with  stone  (Fig.  27).  The 
water  ran  out  of  the  spring,  down  a  trough,  and  into  a  large  wa- 
tering-trough. Then  it  went  across  the  road,  under  a  bridge,  and 
into  the  field.  The  water  ran  through  the  field  under  the  fences, 
and  we  followed  it  a  great  distance  down.  The  brook  ran 
through  another  plowed  field,  past  an  old  tumble-down  barn. 
Here  the  brook  ran  under  the  ground,  and  we  could  only  follow 
it  by  the  green  grass  above  it.     There  were  many  trees  near  the 


Field  Lessons. 


57 


barn,  and  the  brook  ran  into  the  woods.  Nearly  all  the  trees 
were  very  large  and  old.  After  awhile  we  came  to  a  place  where 
the  stream  divided  into  two  parts  and  formed   a  small  island. 


Fig.  27. 

"The  spring  was  walled  about  with  stone." 

Alice  Bard,  8  yrs. 

The  girls  ran  along  the  left  bank  of  the  stream,  and  nearly  all 
the  boys  along  the  right.  We  were  going  from  the  source  to  the 
mouth  of  the  brook,  so  we  were  on  the  left-hand  side  going  down- 


FlG.  28. 

"The  water  came  down  as  a  water-fall." 

Kate  Bard,  10  yrs. 

stream.     The  boys  found  a  place  where  the  water  came  down  as 
a  waterfall  (Fig.  28).     There  was  a  log  lying  across  the  brook, 


58  A  River  Basin, 

and  we  crossed  over  upon  it.  Up  the  hill  there  was  a  large  old 
tree  that  had  fallen  down  upon  the  ground.  The  rain  came 
down,  and  the  boys  crawled  under  the  log  to  keep  dry.  We  girls 
stayed  down  by  the  falls,  and  held  umbrellas  over  us.  When  we 
started  for  home  it  began  to  rain  harder,  and  the  water  ran  in 
streams  along  the  road.  We  enjoyed  our  walk,  but  if  it  had  not 
been  for  the  rain  it  would  have  been  more  pleasant.  Our  teach- 
ers went  with  us.  Edna  McCalmont,  12  yrs. 

The  Great  Father  of  Waters. 

The  following  lesson  was  given  by  Mary  L.  Smith,  a  senior  in  charge  of  the  third  and  fourth  grade 
classes  in  Geography.  The  report  is  largely  her  own,  being  made  from  the  data  furnished  by  her 
lesson-plan  and  her  verbal  report  of  the  answers  obtained  during  the  lesson.  The  children  range 
from  nine  to  eleven  years  of  age. 

Motive. — To  give  and  fix  in  the  mind  of  the  pupils  a  picture 
of  the  Mississippi  river  and  its  branches. 

Lesson. — i.  The  surface  of  North  America  was  rapidly  re- 
viewed, emphasizing  the  eastern  and  western  slopes. 

2.  Pupils  at  the  board  and  at  seats  were  asked  to  represent 
their  ideas  of  hills  and  of  slopes ;  then  of  two  slopes  and  a  valley 
between.  What  do  we  always  find  in  valleys?  Do  you  know  of 
any  valley  without  a  stream  of  water?  Now  make  a  very  wide 
valley  with  one  slope  higher  than  the  other.  James  may  mold 
the  slopes  and  valley  in  the  sand  on  the  molding-board.  Those 
at  seats  and  at  the  blackboard  may  draw  the  picture  (Fig.  29). 

3.  The  tendency  of  bodies  to  roll  down-hill  was  discussed. 
John,  if  you  were  on  this  slope  with  a  basket  of  apples,  and  Paul 
were  on  the  other  and  had  a  bucket  of  water  and  a  basket  of 
stones,  and  both  of  you  should  empty  the  baskets  and  bucket, 
what  would  happen  ?  ''  The  stones,  apples,  and  water  would 
travel  down-hill."  "  Until  they  came  to  a  level  place."  ''  Some 
would  run  down  faster  than  others,"     Suppose  Rosetta  and  Edna 


A  River  Basin, 


59 


should  start  some  other  little  travelers  ?     "  The  same  thing  would 
happen." 

Now  I  know  of  a  great  many  little  travelers  whose  home  is 
higher  than  the  mountains.     Very,  very  often  the  houses  in  which 


Fig.  29. 
"Two  slopes  and  a  valley  between." 

they  live  refuse  to  hold  them  any  longer,  so  down  they  come  to 
the  earth.  *'  Do  a  great  many  fall  upon  the  slopes  ?  "  "  Yes, 
Charles.     Now  what    happened    to    the   stones    and   apples?" 


Fig,  30. 
"They  rolled  down  the  hill  slopes."     In  just  the  same  manner 
the  little  travelers  that  I  am  thinking  about  came  tumbling  one 
over  the  other  until  they  reached  the  valley  below.     Now  how 
many  know  the  name  of  these  little  travelers  ?     *^  Drops  of  water." 


6o  A  River  Basin. 

"  Home  in  the  clouds."  ''  No  drops  like  to  stay  alone."  *'  They 
flow  together  and  wash  out  gullies  in  the  hills."  ''  They  unite 
and  form  springs,  brooks,  creeks,  and  rivers."  ''  The  farther  the 
streams  run,  the  larger  they  grow."  Now  what  is  the  name  of 
this  stream  ?  "  Mississippi."  The  Indians  called  this  river  Mishi 
— great,  sipi — river ;  or  the  GREAT  Father  of  Waters.  One 
Httle  stream  touches  another  stream,  then  both  join  another.     We 


'WjLUE  HoWClL. 

Fig.  3t.     (From  Memory.) 

might  say  one  stream  catches  the  hand  of  the  next  until  all 
gather  around  old  father  Mississippi  and  give  everything  to  him. 
"  Like  little  children  coming  to  their  parents."  Suppose  the 
smaller  rivers  should  stop  bringing  water  to  the  old  father  river. 
Let  us  look  at  the  map  of  the  river.  Take  your  books.  "  A 
whole  family  of  rivers."  Yes,  that  is  so.  Here  is  the  "Old 
Father  of  Waters."     ''The  grandfather."     And  the  Missouri,  the 


A  Meridian  Line,  6i 

Arkansas,  the  Ohio.  "  Sons  and  daughters."  "  Children  of  the 
Mississippi."  We  shall  call  them  children.  And  these  two  which 
form  the  Ohio?  "  The  Monongahela  and  Alleghany."  "  Grand- 
children." 

The  pupils  now  seem  pleased  to  speak  of  the  Mississippi  river 
system  as  a  grandfather  with  his  children  and  grandchildren. 

4.  Books  are  now  closed,  and  each  pupil  takes  paper  and  draws 
from  memory  the  picture  of  the  river  system  as  it  appears  upon 
the  map  (Fig.  31). 

Questions  by  the  teacher  and  pupils  follow,  such  as  "  How 
many  children  live  west  ?  "  "  How  many  east  ?  "  ''  Name  them." 
**  Down  which  slope  do  they  run  to  their  father.^"  ''Name  all 
the  grandchildren  who  live  on  the  east."     "  On  the  west." 

From  the  School-yard  to  the  Stars. 

An  old  Mexican  engineer  said,  ''  You  may  carry  me  blind- 
folded to  any  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  leave  me  there  with 
two  sticks  and  a  bit  of  looking-glass  or  a  mirror,  and  I  will  deter- 
mine accurately  my  location  in  latitude  and  longitude."  School- 
teachers are  not  engineers,  and  may  not  see  readily  how  such 
results  could  be  reached,  but  the  old  Mexican  was  right  as  to  the 
utility  of  seemingly  insignificant  things  in  the  truly  scientific  ob- 
servation of  phenomena. 

Long  before  the  solar  compass  and  the  other  appliances  of 
modern  surveying  were  brought  into  use,  the  Romans  used  very 
simple  means  for  finding  the  meridian  line  and  laying  out  the 
streets  of  their  cities.  It  is  to  an  application  of  these  means  to 
the  study  of  geography  that  we  invite  the  attention  of  the  teach- 
ers in  our  schools. 

It  is  in  general  granted  in  the  study  of  geography  that  the 
beginning  should  be  made  at  home  ;  that  is,  we  should  go  from 


62 


A  Line  Upon  the  Sana. 


the  known  to  the  unknown.  Teach  the  child  that  the  meridian 
of  any  spot  upon  the  earth  can  be  found  ;  in  fact,  may  be  made 
as  definite  in  direction  as  any  road,  street,  or  Hne-fence  (Fig,  32). 
Take  a  straight  stake  and  nail  to  it  a  piece  of  tin  having  a 
circular  hole  near  its  center.  Tie  a  stone  to  a  long  string  and 
fasten  this  plumb-line  to  the  tin  through  the  hole,  which  should 
be  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     Go  out  upon  the 


Fig.  32. 
playground  in  the  forenoon,  and,  facing  the  shadow  on  level 
ground,  drive  the  stake  into  the  earth,  inclining  somewhat  toward 
the  shadow.  Put  a  peg,  C^  directly  under  the  plumb-line,  and 
also  drive  one,  Wy  into  the  ground  just  where  the  light  through 
the  hole  in  the  tin  strikes  upon  the  ground.  Note  the  time  until 
noon — say  one  hour.  At  noon  return  and  put  another  peg,  Z, 
where  the  light  comes  through  the  shadow  of  the  tin.  At  one 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  put  a  peg,  E,  where  the  light  strikes  at 
that  time.     The  Hne  6^  Z  is  a  north  and  south  line  or  meridian, 


A  Meridian  Line.  63 

and,  if  E  and  Wh^  joined  by  a  straight  line,  we  shall  have  a  line 
running  east  and  west.  If  the  work  is  carefully  done,  WL  will 
be  equal  to  EL. 

Where  the  place  is  far  from  the  standard  meridian,  local  time 
should  be  calculated  and  used.  How  could  the  practical  work  of 
the  problems  in  longitude  and  time  given  in  our  arithmetics  be 
better  illustrated  ?  Thus,  near  Pittsburg,  in  finding  a  recent 
meridian  laid  down  by  a  group  of  students,  the  longitude  80° 
west  was  taken  from  the  geography  ;  and  since  the  clock  was 
keeping  standard  eastern  time  (75th  meridian),  the  difference  in 
longitude  was  5  degrees.  Since  one  degree  of  longitude  marks  4 
minutes  of  time,  5  degrees  would  show  a  difference  of  20  minutes, 
and  local  noon  would  not  come  until  12  :  20  P.M.,  standard  Phila- 
delphia time.  At  1 1  A.M.,  standard  time,  the  peg  was  put  at  W. 
Then  one  hour  and  20  minutes  afterward,  or  at  12:20  P.M.,  the 
peg  L  was  placed  and  the  meridian  CL  secured.  At  i  :  40  P.M. 
the  peg  E  was  placed,  and  the  meridian  checked  by  comparing 
the  length  of  EL  with  WL. 

By  such  means  a  good  meridian  line  may  be  obtained,  and  it 
will  be  exactly  true  if  made  June  21  or  December  22.  At  other 
times,  if  greater  accuracy  is  desired,  the  amount  that  the  sun  is 
"  fast  "  or  "  slow  "  may  be  found  from  the  almanac,  and  proper 
allowance  made. 

At  all  times  very  good  results  may  be  obtained  by  putting  the 
stake  upright,  and,  without  any  plumb-line  or  perforated  tin,  not- 
ing where  the  end  of  the  shadow  strikes  at  noon.  A  line  drawn 
from  the  foot  of  the  stake  to  the  end  of  the  shadow  will  mark  the 
north-and-south  line ;  that  is,  the  shadow  will  be  on  the  meridian. 

If  the  windows  open  toward  the  south,  a  good  north-and-south 
line  can  be  found  by  continuing  the-  path  of  the  beam  of  light 
passing  through  the  window  at  local  noon.  Draw  a  line  upon  the 
floor  to  mark  the  position  of  the  meridian  (Fig.  33).     If  teachers 


64 


A  Line  Upon  the  Sand. 


would  devote  a  portion  of  theii  time  to  work  of  this  kind,  we  be- 
lieve that  the  pupils  would  obtain  much  better  ideas  of  direction 


Fig.  33. 
and  distance.  Allow  the  children  to  determine  the  direction  of 
the  common  roads  (Fig.  34),  and  to  mark  upon  the  maps  which 
they  construct  the  changes  in  direction  which  such  roads  make. 
It  is  remarkable  what  progress  in  accurate  work  the  pupils  will 
make  under  such  instruction.  We  have  in  mind  the  animated 
looks  of  a  large  class  of  boys  when  they  were  told  by  their  teacher 
that  we  would  learn  the  table  of  Surveyors'  Measure  by  actual 
practice  in  the  field.  The  following  Saturday  was  named  for  the 
exercise.  Promptly  at  the  time  appointed  every  lad  appeared ; 
and  no  band  of  U.  S.  engineers  ever  worked  with  more  energy 
than    did    that   class   of    practical   geographers.     They  surveyed 


A  Meridian  Line. 


65 


lines,  measured  distances,  estimated  areas,  and  calculated  the 
height  of  trees  from  the  shadows ;  and  if  they  did  not  then  pass 
to  the  study  of  Polaris,  the  north  star,  it  was  not  the  fault  of  the 
boys.  None  of  them  afterwards  could  be  puzzled  by  questions 
about  units  of  length,  surface,  and  direction.     The  relation  be- 


FiG.  34. 
tween  Surveyors'  Measure  and   Long  Measure  was  discovered  ; 
and  when  we  took  up  Cubic  Measure,  they  calculated  the  cubic 
capacity  of  all  things,  from  the  corn-crib  to  the  wash-tub,  either 
in  cubic  feet,  bushels,  or  in  gallons. 

Costly  apparatus  may  not  be  within  the  reach  of  the  teachers  in 
our  common  schools,  but  in  reality  the  simplest  apparatus  is  best. 
In  these  days  we  can  afford  to  disregard  the  sneer  at  "home-made 
apparatus"  so  plainly  marked  in  a  recent  educational  journal. 


66  Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling, 


atibanceti  morfi  \xi  ^anti  ittoDeling* 

MODELING  NORTH  AMERICA,  BEGINNING  WITH  ITS   PRE- 
DOMINANT MOUNTAIN  SYSTEM.     (See  Frontispiece.) 

In  the  hands  of  the  skilful  teacher,  the  possibilities  of  sand 
modeling  in  giving  correct  ideas  of  the  great  continental  land- 
masses  cannot  well  be  over-estimated.  The  working  method 
may  differ  according  to  individual  preferences,  but  the  model 
must  grow  under  the  hands  of  the  teacher,  as  the  child  either 
looks  on  or  assists  in  the  modeling.  The  good  effects  resulting 
from  the  mere  inspection  of  relief  maps,  modeled  while  the  chil- 
dren are  absent,  will  not  stand  comparison  with  the  results  of  the 
work  when  the  children  watch  the  modeler,  or,  better  still,  assist 
in  the  modeling  of  the  relief  form. 

Perhaps  the  most  finished  and  elegant  process  of  modeling 
the  continent  is  to  proceed  from  the  molding  of  the  primary- 
highland  of  the  mass.  This  is  certaining  a  proper  plan  of  pro- 
cedure, because,  in  general,  the  central  land  mass  gives  tone  and 
character  to  the  entire  continent.  If  geologists  are  right,  how- 
ever, we  may  not  claim  that  it  is  the  way  in  which  our  own  con- 
tinent first  rose  from  the  bosom  of  the  great  earth  sea.  In  North 
America,  at  the  close  of  Archaean  time  and  in  the  beginning  of 
the  Cambrian  age,  the  emerged  portion  of  the  continent  consisted 
of  one  or  more  large  islands  in  the  northeastern  part,  lying  mostly 
in  the  present  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  having  the  shape  of  the 
letter  V.  One  arm  of  this  wedge-shaped  body  of  land  reached 
northeastward  to  Labrador,  while  the  other  extended  north- 
westward  from   Lake   Superior   to   the   Arctic.     To  this   great 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling,  67 

northern  nucleal  region  of  the  continent  belong  the  Adirondack 
region  of  New  York  and  the  copper  region  of  Michigan,  each  of 
which  was  an  island  in  the  great  continental  sea.  In  this  early- 
time,  the  western  and  southern  sides  of  the  great  continental  tri- 
angle lay  mostly  beneath  the  level  of  the  sea.  Still,  the  great 
plan  upon  which  the  continent  was  to  be  built  was  in  a  general 
way  determined  by  chains  of  islands  occupying  the  lines  of  the 
Appalachians  of  the  east  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  the  west. 
There  were  also  several  isolated  regions  in  the  western  part  of 
the  Mississippi  basin.  The  great  continental  nucleus,  therefore, 
is  marked  at  present  by  the  least  considerable  of  the  elevations 
of  the  continent.  This  plan  of  the  continental  growth  may  well 
be  employed  in  giving  the  brief  statement  of  a  great  geological 
truth  to  an  advanced  class  in  geography ;  and  thus  an  important 
chapter  in  the  story  of  our  continent  may  be  studied.  Geography, 
however,  is  largely  a  study  of  present  land  forms  and  surfaces. 
It  seems  logical,  therefore,  to  begin  the  modeling  with  the  Pacific 
highlands,  the  great  axis  of  the  continent. 

The  essential  idea  that  the  child  is  now  to  grasp  is  this  :  The 
continent  is  to  be  studied  as  a  solid — as  having  height  as  well  as 
length  and  breadth.  The  conception  of  the  continent  as  a  solid 
must  be  made  clear  to  the  pupils,  for  upon  this  fact  of  sohdity 
will  depend  the  drainage  and  many  of  the  climatic  conditions. 


68  Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling, 


Modeling  North  America. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  the  lesson  upon  North  America.  Tilt 
the  molding-board  slightly  at  an  angle  toward  the  pupils,  and  put 
a  quantity  of  moist  sand  upon  it.  Draw  the  sand  rapidly  out  to 
represent  the  broad  Pacific  highland  as  a  mountainous  plateau, 
with  the  Rocky  Mountains  resting  on  the  eastern  side  ;  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  Cascade,  and  lower  mountains  on  the  western 
edge.  Spread  out  the  sand  into  the  broad  triangular  mass  of  the 
continent,  and  model  rapidly  the  narrow  eastern  or  Atlantic 
highland.  Separate  this  into  the  Appalachian  system  of  moun- 
tains along  the  eastern  coast,  and  the  highlands  of  Canada  and 
Labrador  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Describe  and  question  as 
you  proceed,  bringing  out  the  main  points  here  indicated  directly  : 

Here  are  the  Primary  Highlands  occupying  the  entire  western 
two-thirds  of  the  continent,  and  extending  in  one  long  line  of 
elevations  from  northwest  to  southeast,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  is  5700  miles  long,  and  is  known 
as  the  Cordilleras  of  North  America,  or  sometimes  the  Pacific 
System.  It  is  part  of  the  greater  system  extending  from  Cape 
Horn  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  called  the  Cordilleras  of  the  New 
World.  This  is  the  longest  mountain  system  in  the  world.  In 
North  America  it  also  becomes  the  broadest ;  it  is  the  greatest  in 
all  respects  except  height. 

The  top  of  the  great  mass  of  the  Pacific  highlands  is  sur- 
mounted on  either  side  by  mountain  ranges.  The  outer  system 
comprises  the  Cascade,  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  Coast  Range  of 
mountains.  The  inner  mountain  system  is  formed  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Madre  Mountains.  This  is  the  main 
watershed  of  North  America,  and  really  marks  the  culmination 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand-  Modeling,  69 

of  the  continent,  from  which  there  is  a  general  descent  to  the 
Atlantic  on  the  east  and  to  the  Pacific  on  the  west.  The 
western  slope  keeps  at  nearly  the  same  general  level  from  the 
base  of  the  Rockies  to  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  then  rapidly  de- 
scends to  the  Pacific.  The  eastern  slope  is  almost  continuous 
from  the  base  of  the  mountains  to  the  Atlantic.  From  these 
two  distinctly  marked  slopes  we  may  see  that  the  division  of  the 
waters  by  this  great  watershed  is  as  natural  as  the  division  of  the 
rain  that  falls  upon  the  roof  of  a  house  by  the  central  ridge.  The 
waters  will  follow  these  slopes  eastward  and  westward.  What 
angle  do  you  think  they  will  make  with  the  dividing  line  ? 

Let  us  now  model  the  shorter  and  much  narrower  highlands 
of  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent.  The  broad  valley  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  divides  this  region  into  two  parts.  One,  the  Alleghanies, 
consists  of  a  number  of  low  parallel  mountain  ranges.  Here  are 
long  folds  or  ridges  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  not  the  wild  peaks  of 
the  Rockies.  As  the  swell  gradually  descends  toward  the  interior 
of  the  continent,  it  becomes  a  series  of  undulations  consisting  of 
hills,  then  a  plateau,  and  finally  the  river  valley.  The  northern 
part  of  the  eastern  mountain  system  is  known  as  the  Laurentian 
Mountains.  It  consists  of  low,  rounded  elevations,  only  the  high- 
est points  reaching  an  altitude  of  4000  feet.  This  system  is  contin- 
uous with  the  plateau  of  Labrador,  and  with  the  Arctic  plateau. 

Here  we  find  the  Great  Central  Plain,  resulting  from  the  pro- 
longed inner  slopes  of  the  two  great  highlands  of  the  continent. 
As  these  two  mountain  lines  approach  each  other  at  the  south, 
and  diverge  at  the  north,  they  give  to  North  America  its  char- 
acteristic triangular  form.  A  great  depression  separates  them  at 
the  south,  and  thus  we  find  here  the  great  Mediterranean,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Far  to  the  north  the  central  depression  falls 
again  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  gives  to  the  continent  its 
great  northern  Mediterranean,  Hudson's  Bay. 


70  Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling. 

Nearly  all  of  the  lowland  of  the  continent  is  found  in  this 
great  plain  formed  by  the  long  eastern  slope  of  the  primary 
highland  and  the  long  western  slope  of  the  secondary  highland. 
This  is  one  of  the  largest  valleys  in  the  world.  Near  the  great 
lakes  a  swell,  called  the  Height  of  Land,  extends  across  the 
central  plain,  dividing  it  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  slope. 
The  Height  of  Land  rises  imperceptibly  from  the  plain  and  impels 
the  waters  northward  and  southward.  The  northern  slope  be- 
comes the  Arctic  plain  ;  the  southern  slope  is  the  Mississippi 
Valley. 

Where  do  you  think  the  main  rivers  of  this  continent  may  be 
found  ?  Open  your  geographies  to  the  map  of  North  America. 
Where  is  the  principal  river  of  the  continent  ?  In  what  direction 
does  it  flow  ?  Which  main  river  flows  eastward  ?  Name  its 
slopes.  Mark  it  upon  the  model  by  this  bit  of  string.  Locate 
the  largest  river  by  strewing  some  of  this  salt  to  mark  the  river's 
course.  What  right  has  this  river  to  give  name  to  the  system  ? 
Why  does  it  flow  in  that  direction  ?  Why  do  not  its  tributaries 
flow  into  it  at  right  angles  to  the  course  ?  Name  the  principal 
tributaries  of  this  river.  Find  the  three  great  water-partings  or 
watersheds  of  the  continent.  Trace  the  continental  axis  as 
shown  upon  this  map. 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling, 


71 


ILejsson  XK» 

Elevations  and  River  Basins. 

Other  river  systems  and  the  remarkable  lake  regions  should 
be  studied.  Cross-sections  of  the  continent  as  molded  should 
be  drawn  at  various  latitudes.  Cut  through  the  sand  along  the 
given  line,  exposing  enough  of  the  elevation  to  allow  the  pupils  to 
draw  correctly  (Fig.  35).  Call  for  other  drawings  without  the 
making  of  the  actual  cut  on  the  model.     Let  one  of  the  cross- 


Lst  60° 


Xat  ^5' 


I.  at.  38 


Zat.30' 


Fig.  35- 
sections  made  be  in  latitude  38°,  from  San  Francisco  to  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  another  in  latitude  45°,  from  Portland,  Oregon,  to 
Halifax ;  another  at  latitude  30°,  Rosario  [Lower  California], 
New  Orleans,  and  St.  Augustine ;  another  across  Mexico  and 
Yucatan  at  19,°  the  approximate  latitude  of  Vera  Cruz.  Make 
sections  also  from  north  to  south. 

Study  the  slopes,  and  speak  of  the  two  inner  slopes  forming 
the  great  basin  of  the  Mississippi. 


72  Elevations  and  River  Basins, 

How  many  water-partings  has  a  river  basin  ? 

Opposed  to  the  hne  of  meeting  of  the  slopes  at  their  upper 

edges the  water-parting — find  the  river-bed  forming  the  Hne  of 

meeting  of  the  slopes  at  their  lower  edges. 

Study  the  relative  amounts  of  water  contributed  by  the  two 
slopes  of  this  great  basin. 

Where  are  the  great  water  centers  of  the  continent  ?     [A,  B,  C] 

(Fig.  36). 

The  slopes  in  this  continent  of  North  America  are  such  as 
develop  the  germs  of  civihzed  life.  In  other  lessons  we  may 
study : 

1.  The  fertile  soil. 

2.  Abundant  waters. 

3.  Excellent  harbors. 

4.  Luxuriant  vegetation. 

5.  Position  across  the  currents  of  air  and  ocean. 

6.  Across  the  trend  of  migration. 

7.  The  centers  of  industry. 

8.  The  mines   of  gold,  silver,  platinum,  mercux-y,  and  lead. 

(Western  highlands.) 

9.  The  mines  of  coal,  iron,  and  nickel.     (Eastern  highlands.) 

10.  The  mines  of  copper.     (Lake  Superior.) 

11.  Where  salt  is  found.     Petroleum. 

12.  The  river  systems  and  water  centers. 

MODELING  FROM  THE  FLAT  LAYER  OF  SAND. 

Some  teachers  prefer  to  commence  the  work  of  map-molding 
by  spreading  a  thin  layer  of  sand  over  the  board,  and  then  out- 
lining the  continent  in  the  sand  by  means  of  a  pointed  stick  or 
pencil.  The  excess  of  sand  beyond  the  shore  lines  is  then 
brushed  carefully  away,  and  the  mountains  and  river  basins  lo- 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling, 


73 


yi  offL/\7K<T )  ^\.^ 


Fig.  36. 


74         Modeling  from  the  Flat  Layer  of  Sand. 

cated  and  modeled.  A  small  sieve  may  be  used  in  spreading  the 
even  layer  of  sand,  while  common  paint-brushes  may  be  used  in 
taking  away  the  sand  around  the  outline.     Give  the  ingenious 


Fig.  37. 

boy  a  hammer  and  a  small  nail,  and  he  will  soon  make  an  excel- 
lent sieve  from  a  common  tin  basin.  In  all  of  this  work  in  the 
schoolroom  there  must  be  adaptation  to  conditions ;  and  the  re- 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling. 


75 


suits  reached  will  be  gauged  by  the  teacher's  power  to  utilize  the 
material  that  lies  nearest. 

Dry  white  sand  is  the  best  for  use  in  this  method  of  modehng. 


Fig.  38. 

Salt,  meal,  and  some  other  substances  have  been  successfully  em- 
ployed for  the  same  purpose.  The  plateaus  and  mountain  ridges 
are  modeled  by  increasing  the  thickness  of  the  layer  at  the  vari- 


76  Molding  upon  an  Outline. 

ous  points  necessary  (Fig.  38).  The  sand  will  not  be  raised  so 
high,  but  in  some  respects  this  is  an  advantage.  In  modeHng 
a  continent  the  teacher  should  make  use  of  profiles  carefully 


A  A^ 


Fig.  39. 

drawn  (Fig.  39).  The  pupils  should  make  drawings  of  sections 
of  the  continents,  taking  first  a  cross-section  from  east  to  west, 
and  then  from  north  to  south. 

MOLDING  UPON  AN  OUTLINE. 

A  method  in  much  favor  in  the  molding  of  the  continents  is 
that  in  which  the  outline  of  the  continent  is  first  sketched  or  sten- 
ciled upon  the  molding-board,  or  upon  a  large  sheet  of  paper 
placed  upon  the  board.  The  relief-map  (Fig.  40)  is  then  molded 
in  sand  spread  outward  to  the  outlines  as  thus  marked.  The 
sheets  of  manila  paper  upon  which  the  outlines  have  been  drawn 
may  be  preserved  for  use  from  day  to  day,  and  the  maps  repro- 
duced as  occasion  may  demand.  Such  a  series  of  stencil  outlines 
may  be  made  from  the  basal  lines  given  in  this  book  for  each  of 
the  continents.  If  the  maps  be  constructed  to  a  uniform  scale, 
many  valuable  comparisons  may  be  made. 

MOLDING  FROM  A  CENTRAL  MASS. 
But  che  most  valuable  method  of  sand  modeling  is  that  in 
which  the  freedom  and  power  of  the  pupil  are  combined  in  the 
search  after  the  mass-form  of  the  continental  relief.  In  such 
modeling  the  work  proceeds  from  a  central  mass  of  the  material, 
gathered  near  the  center  of  the  board,     A  few  approximate  di- 


V 

Fig.  40. 


Molding  from  a  Central  Mass,  77 

mensions  are  taken  in  the  division  of  the  sides  of  the  board  into 
halves,  thirds,  quarters,  etc.,  and  then  the  work  of  modehng  pro- 
ceeds in  the  drawing  out  of  the  sand  in  hnes,  broad  or  narrow,  ac- 
cording to  the  rehef  and  contour  of  the  continent. 

The  outHne  of  the  shores  of  the  continent  is  then  formed  by 
pushing  the  sand  back  along  the   lines  at  the  proper  places,  ac 
cording  to  any  good  outline   map   of  the   continent.     The  high- 
lands and  mountain  ranges  are  then  modeled,  and  the  map  fin- 
ished according  to  the  details  previously  given. 

The  plans  here  given  for  the  molding  of  the  various  conti- 
nents are  the  results  of  the  best  class-room  work  in  molding  these 
forms.  Other  plans  will  suggest  themselves  to  both  pupils  and 
teachers,  but  these  may  serve  as  examples  of  plans  that  have 
been  successfully  employed. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  directions  for  individual  model- 
ing be  given  slowly,  so  that  each  pupil  may  follow  the  move- 
ments as  planned,  and  thus  the  results  may  be  uniform  and  satis- 
factory. 

A  Lesson  with  the  Molding  Board. 

This  lesson  is  designed  to  show  one  way  in  which  the  mold- 
ing-board may  be  used  in  the  advanced  class  in  geography.  A 
lesson  on  South  America  has  been  assigned  and  studied.  (Har- 
per's Geography.) 

The  teacher  is  provided  with  a  molding-board  constructed 
according  to  the  directions  previously  given,  and  shown  in  ac- 
companying figures. 

The  board  itself  is  two  feet  eight  inches  wide  and  three  feet 
four  inches  long,  and  is  mounted  upon  a  stand  so  as  to  be  about 
three  feet  two  inches  from  the  floor.  The  board  may  be  placed 
horizontally,  or  inclined,  as  shown. 

Each  member  of  the  class  is  provided  with  a  small  lap-board, 


78  A  Lesson  with  the  Molding  Board, 

sixteen  inches  by  twenty  inches,  having  strips  of  inch-molding 
tacked  around  the  edges.  Two  handfuls  of  molder's  clay  com- 
plete the  outfit.  A  somewhat  larger  amount  of  sand  is  placed  in 
the  large  molding-board. 


Teacher. — Class  will  give  strict  attention  to  the  directions, 
and  carry  them  out  carefully. 

a.  Gather  the  sand  in  a  conical  pile  near  the  center  of  the 
board  (Fig.  43). 


jd 

^^■^ 

^%^^-=^  /w 

y^ 

W^^^  // 

-^^^ 

^ ^ 

r       — ~ 

=; —          :=! 

—    v 

Fig.  42. 

b.  Divide  the  right-hand  side  of  the  board  into  thirds,  and 
mark  the  upper  third  with  a  pinch  of  sand. 

c.  Bisect  the  lower  side,  CD,  and  mark  the  central  point. 


Advanced  iVork  in  Sand  Modeling. 


19 


I.  Place  the  hands  upon  the  top  of  the  pile,  and  draw  the 
sand  in  a  narrowing  and  somewhat  curved  band  toward  the  point 
at  the  bottom  of  the  board. 


So  Molding  from  the  Central  Mass. 

2.  Return  to  the  center,  and  draw  the  sand  in  a  broad  mass 
nearly  out  to  the  point  on  the  right. 

3.  Place  the  hands  again  at  the  center,  and  draw  the  sand  in 
a  broad  oval  mass  toward  the  upper  left  corner  at  y3,half  the  dis- 
tance from  5  to  ^. 

4.  Draw  out  a  narrow  line  toward  the  point  A. 

5.  Complete  the  outHne  of  South  America  by  pushing  the 
sand  back  at  the  proper  points  along  the  coast  line.  Follow  the 
large  outline  map. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  move  (i)  molds  roughly  the  narrow 
main  axis  of  the  continent ;  the  next,  (2),  gives  the  broad  expan- 
sion of  Brazil  and  its  secondary  highlands  ;  while  (3)  and  (4)  ex- 
tend the  main  axis  northward,  and  give  the  highlands  of  Guiana. 

The  main  highland  system  in  the  west,  the  extended  low  table- 
lands of  Brazil  in  the  east,  the  smaller  mountainous  region  of 
Guiana  on  the  north,  and  the  great  central  plain  along  the  foot 
of  the  Andes  and  between  the  eastern  highlands,  together  with 
its  three  great  river  systems,  form  the  fundamental  features  of 
the  continental  structure.  This  structure  is  characteristic,  and  is 
not  repeated  in  any  other  continent. 

The  class  has  now  an  outline  map  of  South  America,  made  in 
much  less  time  than  is  taken  in  reading  these  directions. 

Teacher. — What  mountain  range  extends  along  the  western  coast  of  the 
grand  division  ? 

Ans. — The  Andes. 

The  Andes  mountains  are  molded  in  place. 

Teacher. — What  are  the  secondary  systems  ? 

Ans. — The  mountains  of  Brazil  and  of  Guiana,  both  in  the  eastern  part. 

The  secondary  mountains  are  molded. 

Teacher. — What  have  we  now  between  the  mountain  systems  ? 
Ans. — Three  great  plains,  or  three  sections  of  one  grand  plain. 
Teacher. — What  great  rivers  drain  this  grand  plain  } 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling.  8i 

Ans. — The  Amazon,  the  Orinoco,  and  the  La  Plata. 

Teacher, — The  central  section  of  this  grand  plain  is  drained  by  what 
river  ? 

Ans. — The  Amazon. 

Teacher. — This  great  "  Swamp  River"  runs  through  the  largest  forest  in 
the  world.     What  name  is  given  to  this  region  } 

Ans. — The  Selvas  of  the  Amazon. 

Teacher. — What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  selvas? 

Ans. — Woods. 

Teacher. — Can  any  one  tell  me  why  this  region  is  almost  unoccupied 
by  civilized  man  .'' 

Ans. — The  climate  is  unhealthful,  being  hot  and  moist. 

Teacher, — Yes,  malarial  fevers  prevail  in  such  climates. 

Class  here  roughly  outlines  the  Amazon  by  means  of  pieces  of  blue  twine  laid  on  the  surface  of  the 
central  plain. 

Teacher. — What  river  drains  the  northern  part  of  the  grand  plain  } 

Ans. — The  Orinoco. 

Teacher. — What  name  is  given  to  this  region  ? 

Ans. — It  is  called  the  "  Llanos,"  meaning  plains. 

Teacher. — This  section  is  called  by  the  natives  the  "Sea  of  Grass." 
It  is  one  vast  meadow  during  the  rainy  season  ;  but  at  the  end  of  the  dry 
season  it  is  a  scorched  desert,  swept  by  hot  winds.  What  use  do  the  inhabi- 
tants make  of  these  plains  } 

Ans. — Large  numbers  of  horses  and  cattle  are  raised. 

Teacher. — What  other  section  of  South  America  is  suitable  for  the  sup- 
port of  cattle  } 

Ans. — The  third  or  southern  portion  of  the  grand  plain.  This  is  drained 
by  the  La  Plata,  and  is  called  "  the  Pampas." 

Teacher.— Th&se  animals  constitute  the  chief  wealth  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  llanos  and  the  pampas,  and  determine  the  occupations  and  exports. 
What  are  some  of  these  exports  ? 

Afts. — Hides,  wool,  beef,  and  tallow. 

Teacher, — Where  is  the  great  desert  region  of  the  grand  division  } 

Ans. — The  northern  part  of  the  western  coast  is  a  dry  desert. 

Teacher. — Why  is  this  section  desert  ? 

Ans. — The  trade-winds  from  the  east  lose  their  moisture  in  crossing  the 
Andes,  and,  passing  down  to  the  Pacific,  cause  the  great  rainless  coast, 
eighteen  hundred  miles  long. 


82  A  Progressive  Sand  Map, 

Teacher. — What  can  you  say  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  western 
coast  ? 

Ans. — The  counter  trade-winds  of  the  South  Pacific  cause  this  portion 
to  be  shrouded  in  clouds  and  drenched  with  rains, 

(Bell  rings.) 

Teacher. — Class  may  study  for  to-morrow  the  vegetation  and  animals  of 
South  America.  Also  consider  the  political  geography  in  its  principal 
points.     The  boards  may  be  placed  near  the  door  as  you  pass  out. 


A  Progressive    Sand-Map:    South  America. 

The  teacher  has  by  his  side  the  map  of  South  America  molded 
during  the  lesson  of  the  day  preceding,  and  the  sand-map  is  tilted 
so  that  the  entire  class  may  see  it  plainly.  The  small  molding- 
boards  are  not  used  during  this  lesson.  A  number  of  specimens 
of  various  plants,  a  picture  of  an  animal,  and  a  few  pieces  of  stone 
or  other  mineral  matter  may  be  used  as  aids  in  development. 
Attention  is  called  to  the  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  of  the  plants, 
and  to  the  head  and  limbs  of  the  animal,  while  a  short  time  is 
devoted  to  the  development  of  their  nature  and  uses.  It  will  be 
found  in  many  cases  that  even  some  of  the  older  pupils  will  need 
the  development  of  the  term  organ. 

Teacher. — In  what  respects  do  plants  and  animals  resemble  each  other? 

A71S. — Both  have  life,  dependent  upon  organs  or  parts  fitted  for  special 
uses. 

Teacher. — I  break  this  stone  into  two  parts;  why  are  not  these  pieces 
organs  } 

Ans. — Because  each  piece  is  like  the  other  in  its  qualities,  and  the  whole 
stone  has  no  life. 

Teacher. — What  are  some  of  the  organs  of  plants  } 

Ans. — Roots,  stems,  and  leaves. 

Teacher. — How  are  plants  nourished  ? 

Ans. — Plants  are  nourished  by  inorganic  substances  taken  from  the  soi' 
and  from  the  air. 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling,  83 

Teacher. — Upon  what  does  vegetable  life  depend  ? 

Ans. — Heat  and  moisture  are  essential,  and  should  be  aided  by  light. 

Teacher. — Turning  now  to  the  examination  of  South  America,  in  which 
part  should  we  find  the  greatest  richness  and  variety  in  vegetation  ? 

Ans. — In  those  parts  having  the  greatest  heat  with  the  greatest  mois- 
ture. The  lowlands  of  the  northern  part  are  within  the  torrid  zone,  and 
are  hot. 

Teacher. — How  is  the  other  condition  fulfilled  ? 

Ans. — The  easterly  trade-winds  and  the  water-courses  supply  abundant 
moisture. 

Teacher. — What  is  the  nature  of  the  resulting  climate  } 

Ans. — The  climate  is  damp  and  unhealthy. 

Teacher. — The  sickly  climate  is  the  cause  of  the  undeveloped  condition 
of  the  region  of  the  great  Swamp  River,  which  drains  an  area  more  than 
double  that  of  any  other  river  system  of  the  globe.  What  is  the  general 
character  of  the  animal  life  of  this  region.'* 

Ans. — On  account  of  the  great  amount  of  moisture  and  the  luxuriant 
vegetation,  those  animals  are  most  abundant  that  by  their  mode  of  life  arc 
connected  most  closely  with  the  vegetable  kingdom  and  the  water. 

Teacher. — Mention  some  of  them. 

Ans, — Insects  are  very  numerous,  and  are  noted  for  size  of  body  and 
brilliancy  of  coloring.  There  are  many  reptiles,  such  as  the  alligator,  liz- 
ard, and  boa-constrictor. 

Teacher. — Name  some  of  the  land  animals. 

Ans. — The  puma,  jaguar,  monkey,  armadillo,  and  tapir. 

Teacher. — What  people  dwell  on  the  Amazon.^ 

Ans. — Many  tribes  of  Indians;  some  half-civilized,  others  savages. 

Teacher. — What  are  some  of  the  forest  products  of  the  section  ? 

Ans. — Rosewood,  mahogany,  tortoise-shell  wood,  various  dye-woods. 
Brazil-nuts,  cocoanuts,  and  caoutchouc  or  India-rubber. 

Teacher. — Pronounce  that  word  again,  Charles. 

Charles. — Caoutchouc  (koo-chook). 

Teacher, — Use  the  dictionary  in  all  such  cases.  What  country  of  South 
America  includes  the  Amazonian  region  } 

Ans. — Brazil. 

Teacher. — How  large  is  Brazil  ? 

Ans. — It  comprises  more  than  two-fifths  of  the  continent,  or  more  than 
three  and  one-fourth  million  square  miles. 


84  Sand  Map  of  South  America, 

Teacher. — Where  do  we  find  most  of  the  cities  of  the  republic? 

Ans. — All  of  the  large  cities  are  seaports  on  the  Atlantic. 

Teacher. — In  what  other  parts  of  South  America  are  important  cities 
found? 

Ans. — In  the  tablelands  of  the  Andes,  and  along  the  northern  coast. 

Teacher. — Notice  that  nearly  all  of  the  civilized  people  in  South  America 
may  be  found  in  a  broad  band  which  surrounds  the  continent  and  crosses 
the  southern  portion  a  little  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata.  Com- 
mencing at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  let  us  name  and  locate  on  the  sand-map 
the  cities  in  this  band  or  chain,  using  these  little  colored  squares  and  trian- 
gles to  mark  the  proper  locations.  Anna  may  name  and  locate  the  first 
city. 

Anna. — Aspinwall,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Isthmus.  (Places  a 
triangle  in  position),  (i). 

Teacher. — What  can  you  say  of  this  city  ? 

A7is.—\\.  is  the  northern  terminus  of  the  Panama  Railroad,  which  con- 
nects the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific. 

Thus  the  following  are  located  and  described :  Cartagena,  Maracaybo, 
Caracas  (capitals  located  by  squares),  (2),  La  Guayra,  Georgetown,  Paramar- 
ibo, Cayenne,  Para,  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Rio  Janeiro,  Ascencion,  Monte- 
video, Buenos  Ayres,  Cordova,  Santiago,  Valparaiso,  Sucre,  La  Paz,  Potosi, 
Arequipa,  Lima,  Callao,  Quito,  Guayaquil,  Bogota,  and  Panama. 

Teacher.— \  hold  in  my  hand  some  little  strips  of  wood  covered  with 
gilt  paper.  Clara  may  take  them  and  locate  the  places  in  which  gold  is 
found. 

Clara  places  one  in  Colombia,  and  others  in  Peru,  Chili,  Brazil,  and  French  Guiana  (3).  Thus,  also, 
the  great  silver,  copper,  tin,  iron,  salt,  coal,  and  diamond  districts  are  located.  If  time  permits,  the 
same  plan  may  be  used  in  locating  the  districts  in  which  wheat,  sugar,  wool,  etc.,  are  produced, 

7>^^//^r.— Where  are  the  great  coffee  regions  of  South  America? 

Ans.—V>X2.T:\\  produces  more  than  half  of  the  coffee  consumed  in  the 
world.  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Guiana  produce  large  quantities  of 
coffee. 

Teacher. — In  what  parts  is  cotton  raised  ? 

Ans. — Cotton  is  raised  in  Guiana  and  Brazil. 

Teacher.— Yox  the  next  lesson  the  class  may  determine  the  wheat,  cocoa, 
sugar,  wool,  and  cattle  regions  of  South  America;  also,  tht  characteristic 
plants  and  animals  of  the  plateaus.  This  outline,  which  James  has  prepared, 
may  be  used  in  the  study  of  Brazil. 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling.  85 


Brazil. 

I. 

Location. 

6.  Occupations  of  Inhabitants. 

2. 

Boundaries. 

7.  Characteristic  Animals. 

3. 

Extent. 

8.  Cities. 

4. 

Population. 

{a)  Capitals. 

5- 

Products. 

{b)  Seaports. 

{a)  Animal. 

9.  Commerce. 

(b)  Vegetable. 

10.  Government. 

{e)  Mineral. 

II.  History. 

Outlines  of  this  kind  should  be  assigned  to  pupils  as  part  of 
their  regular  work. 

The  lesson  as  here  given  was  used  for  advanced  pupils,  but 
the  same  general  plan  may  be  followed  in  all  grades.  The  blocks 
used  in  the  kindergarten  may  take  the  place  of  the  colored 
squares  and  triangles,  and  other  supplies  be  used  for  the  location 
of  the  metals,  etc.  However,  all  the  material  necessary  may 
readily  be  prepared  by  any  of  the  brighter  pupils.  As  the  map 
grows  from  day  to  day,  the  interest  increases,  and  strong  impres- 
sions are  made.  In  one  recitation,  a  little  girl  brought  for  the 
purpose  of  locating  the  coffee  regions  a  number  of  strips  of  card- 
board to  which  roasted  coffee  beans  were  attached.  Her  idea 
might  be  extended,  and  the  cotton  regions,  wheat  regions,  etc., 
be  similarly  located. 

North  America. 

The  board  upon  which  these  maps  are  molded  Is  32  inches 
wide  and  40  inches  long,  or  in  the  proportion  of  four  in  width  to 
five  in  length.  The  sand  is  gathered  in  a  conical  heap  near  the 
center  of  the  board.  Lessons  similar  to  those  given  on  South 
An^ericc^  should  accompany  the  modeling. 


86  Sand  Map  of  North  America. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   MODELING. 

a.  Divide  the  right  side  of  the  board  into  thirds  and  mark  the 
upper  one  (Fig.  44). 

b.  Divide  the  lower  side  into  halves  and  mark  the  center. 

c.  Gather  the  sand  in  a  conical  pile  a  little  above  the  center 
of  the  board. 

1.  Draw  the  material  in  a  broad  band  toward  the  corner  A^ 
narrowing  the  line  of  sand  as  it  approaches  the  corner,  and  giv- 
ing it  a  slight  bend  to  the  south. 

2.  Draw  the  sand  from  the  center,  in  a  gradually  diminishing 
band,  toward  the  middle  point  at  the  bottom,  and  then  draw  it 
in  a  curve  toward  the  corner  D. 

3.  Return  to  the  center,  and  draw  some  of  the  sand  nearly 
out  to  the  upper  third  marked  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
board. 

4.  Draw  some  of  the  sand  in  a  broad  oval  toward  the  lower 
corner  at  C, 

5.  Do  the  same  in  a  smaller  oval  toward  the  lower  right-hand 
corner  at  D. 

6.  7,  8,  9.  Model  the  peninsulas  of  Florida,  California,  and 
Yucatan,  and  remove  the  circular  mass,  6,  to  form  Hudson  Bay. 

10.  Model  the  coast-line  according  to  any  good  outline  map. 

11.  Model  the  primary  and  secondary  mountain  ranges,  and 
locate  the  rivers,  etc. 

In  this  plan  for  molding  North  America,  the  first  movement 
and  the  second,  i  and  2,  give  the  main  axis  of  the  continent. 
The  triangular  form  is  then  obtained  by  3  ;  while  4  broadens 
the  western  plateau,  and  5  gives  the  secondary  highlands  of  the 
east.  Hudson  Bay  and  Labrador  are  modeled  in  6,  while  the 
other  peninsulas  are  given  by  7,  8,  and  9. 

The  characteristic   features  of   this  continent    are  the  great 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling. 


87 


highland  system  on  the  west,  forming  half  of  the  entire  conti. 
nent;  the  narrow  highland  region  of  the  east ;  the  great  central 


Jf 


/--^ 


1^^. 


^  \2\JI 


■A 


•2  ii  0 

Fig.  44. 
plain  resulting  from  the  union  of  the  inner  slopes  of  these  two 
systems  ;    the  remarkable  chain  of  lakes ;  the  two  inland  seas ; 


88  Molding  Africa  in  Sand, 

and  the  union  of  the  waters  into  a  few  great  systems.  The  pre- 
dominant character  of  the  vast  main  highland  of  the  continent  is 
that  of  immense  plateaus,  while  the  eastern  highland  consists  of 
parallel  ridges  or  folds.  The  western  highland  is  of  vast  extent, 
and  of  great  height  ;  it  is  unbroken  from  the  Arctic  to  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  The  low  eastern  highland  is  broken 
entirely  across  by  two  valleys,  through  either  of  which  the  heart 
of  the  continent  is  reached. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  system  forms  the  great  watershed  of 
the  continent,  and  is  its  controlling  feature.  All  that  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  continent  is  alhed  to  this  great  land  mass  in 
greater  or  less  degree. 

Africa. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   MODELING. 

a.  Bisect  the  upper,  lower,  and  left-hand  sides  of  the  board, 
and  place  the  proper  marks. 

b.  Mark  the  upper  third  of  the  right-hand  side. 

c.  Gather  the  sand  a  little  above  the  center  of  the  board. 

1.  Draw  the  sand  in  a  broad,  increasing  mass  toward  the 
corner  A^  and  carry  it  nearly  to  the  centers  of  the  upper  and  left 
sides  (Fig.  45). 

2.  Pull  the  sand  in  a  broad  and  slightly-decreasing  mass  from 
the  center  nearly  to  the  middle  point  at  the  bottom  of  the  board. 

3.  Draw  the  line  of  sand,  with  an  upward  sweep  and  a  narrow- 
ing mass,  nearly  out  to  the  upper  third  on  the  right. 

4.  Draw  the  sand  in  an  oval  mass  slightly  toward  the  upper 
right  corner  at  B. 

5.  Model  the  shore  by  any  good  outline  map. 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling. 


89 


6.  Locate  the  main  axis  and  the  other  mountain  ranges,  the 
rivers,  the  deserts,  and  other  natural  features  of  the  continent. 
Africa  somewhat  resembles  South  America  in  form,  but  its 


3i 


6 


/ 
/ 

/     1 


I^--.4 


c 


2. 

Fig.  45. 


0) 


plan  of  structure  combines  that  of  the  Old  World  and  of  the  New. 
It  may  be  considered  in  two  parts,  the  southern  having,  like  the 
American  continents,  its  greatest  extent  from  north  to  south ; 


90  Sand  Map  of  Australia. 

while  the  northern  part  extends  from  east  to  west.  The  whole 
continent  forms  one  vast  plateau,  which  is  surmounted  by  short, 
irregular  mountain  ranges. 

The  first  movement,  i,  extends  the  northern  part  as  a  broad 
plateau,  and  introduces  the  new  east  and  west  axis ;  while  in  2 
the  north  and  south  line  of  the  main  axis  appears.  The  other 
movements,  3  and  4,  are  simple  extensions  modifying  the  main 
form. 

Australia. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   MODELING. 

a.  Divide  the  upper  side  of  the  board  into  thirds  and  mark 
the  right-hand  division. 

b.  Bisect  the  left  side,  and  then  bisect  the  lower  half  of  the 
side,  placing  the  proper  marks. 

c.  Gather  the  material  at  the  center. 

1 .  Draw  the  sand  in  a  broad  oval  toward  the  lower  right-hand 
corner  at  D  (Fig.  46). 

2.  Draw  the  material  in  a  broad,  angular  band  nearly  out  to 
the  two  points  on  the  left. 

3.  Scoop  out  a  small  quantity  of  the  sand  at  the  top,  and 
draw  it  in  a  tapering  band  toward  the  point  on  the  upper  side. 

4.  Model  the  shore-Hne  and  axes  of  the  continent,  and  locate 
the  main  river  basin. 

Australia  resembles  Africa  more  closely  than  any  other 
continent.  The  primary  mountain  system  is  in  the  east,  and 
is  for  the  most  part  composed  of  broad  plateaus.  The  sec- 
ondary systems  are  in  the  west  and  north.  Africa  terminates 
in  a  plateau,  while  Australia  is  terminated  by  a  great  low 
plain  which  descends  by  long  slopes  from  the  interior  of  the 
continent. 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling,  91 

In    modeling   this   continent,   the    first    movement,    i,   gives 
the    predominant    system,   the    second,   3,    gives    the    western 


Fig.  46. 


plateau,  while  the  third,  3,  completes  the  main  axis  by  add- 
ing York  peninsula. 


92  Molding  Asia  in  Sand. 


Asia. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   MODELING. 

a.  Divide  the  upper,  lower,  and  left  sides  into  two  parts,  and 
place  the  usual  markers. 

b    Bisect  the  lower  half  of  the  left  side. 

c.  Trisect  the  right-hand  side,  and  place  pinches  of  sand  at 
the  points. 

1.  Draw  the  sand  in  a  broad,  angular  band  toward  the  corner 
B  and  the  central  point  at  the  top,  narrowing  as  the  sand  is 
drawn  out  nearly  to  B  (Fig.  47). 

2.  Draw  the  material  in  a  wide,  flat  band  toward  the  two 
points  on  the  left. 

3.  Draw  the  sand  in  a  broad  mass  toward  the  lower  third  of 
the  right-hand  side  and  the  lower  corner  at  Dy  drawing  it  out  in  a 
narrow  line  toward  the  corner  D. 

4.  Draw  the  material  in  a  short,  pointed  mass  toward  the  cen- 
tral point  of  the  lower  side. 

5.  Pull  the  sand  in  an  oval  toward  the  upper  third  on  the 
right. 

6.  7.  Model  narrow  bands  of  the  material  to  show  the  penin- 
sulas of  Kamtchatka  and  Corea. 

8.  Model  the  indentation  for  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  complete 
the  outline  of  the  continent. 

9.  Mold  the  mountains  of  the  great  central  mass,  and  locate 
the  secondary  ranges.  Indicate  the  rivers,  lakes,  basins,  deserts, 
peaks,  and  other  features  of  the  great  continent. 

Asia  is  characterized  by  the  immense  mass  of  elevated  land 
forming  the  interior  of  the  continent ;  by  a  series  of  great  pro- 
jections along  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts  ;  and  by  its  band  of 
islands  and  narrow  peninsulas  parallel  to  the  coasts  of  the  eastern 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling. 


93 


projections,  and  inclosing  remarkable  border  seas.  It  forms 
with  Europe  one  double  continent,  with  one  general  plan  of 
structure,  but  with  differences  in  the  details  of  the  two  continents. 


.Jk. 


-^ 


""\k 

1 

\^^ 

-"'mm^m 

\ 

12 

■'V  - 

3  ;' 

1 

Fig.  47. 


D 


The  pile  of  sand  at  S  will  represent  the  great  central  mass  of 
elevated  land  ;  so  the  first  move,  i,  is  to  draw  the  sand  north- 
ward in  a  broad  band  to  represent  the  almost  uninterrupted  slope 


94  Molding  Europe  in  Sand. 

which  descends  to  the  Arctic  ocean  on  the  north.  The  second 
move,  2,  will  mark  the  westward  extension  of  the  main  axis  of 
the  continent  by  the  Hindoo  Koosh  mountains,  while  the  width 
of  this  band  will  represent  the  slope  toward  the  Caspian  and  Aral 
seas  on  the  west.  At  3  we  extend  the  main  axis  in  the  moun- 
tains of  southern  China.  Move  4  marks  the  peninsula  of  Hin- 
dostan,  one  of  the  remarkable  series  of  projections  that  charac- 
terize the  continent.  One  of  the  secondary  axes  is  molded  in  the 
movement  of  the  sand  at  5.  The  peninsulas  of  Kamtchatka, 
Corea,  and  Arabia  are  molded  by  6,  7,  and  8. 

The  Ural  and  Soliman  mountains  mark  the  line  of  separation 
between  the  two  parts  of  the  one  great  continental  mass  of 
Eurasia. 

Europe. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR   MODELING. 

a.  Bisect  the  right  and  left  sides,  and  mark  as  usual. 

b.  Bisect  the  upper  half  of  the  right  side,  and  the  lower  half 
of  the  left  side. 

c.  Gather  the  sand  in  a  conical  pile  to  the  right  of  the  center 
of  the  board. 

1.  Draw  the  sand  toward  the  corner  B,  and  outward  to  the 
lower  point  on  the  right  ;  and  let  the  upper  part  of  the  mass  ex- 
tend to  the  upper  right-hand  mark  (Fig.  48). 

2.  Draw  the  material  in  a  band  toward  the  quarter-point  on 
the  left,  and  then  make  a  sharp  bend  toward  the  corner  C. 

3.  Draw  a  portion  of  the  sand  toward  the  corner  Dy  and  make 
it  extend  only  a  very  short  distance. 

4.  Draw  a  pointed  mass  toward  the  center  of  the  lower  side. 

5.  Mold  a  part  of  the  sand  by  drawing  it  first  toward  the  corner 
A,  and  then  with  a  sharp  curve  drawing  it  toward  the  corner  (7. 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling, 


95 


6,  7,  8.  Model  the  peninsulas  of  Italy  and  Jutland,  and  the  in- 
dented Bay  of  Biscay.     Complete  the  outline. 


•'  ^  -'"'  N^  V'' 


3     ^ 


jj 


Fig.  48. 

9.  Model  the  central  mass  of  the  Alps,  and  the  mountains  of 
Spain  and  Scandinavia.     Locate  the  river  basins. 

Europe  resembles  Asia  in  the  number  and  position  of  its 
southern  peninsulas.     It  may  be   divided  into   two  parts.  High 


96  Original  Work  in  Sand  Modeling, 

Europe  and  Low  Europe.  The  highlands  are  in  the  interior, 
with  a  belt  of  plains  west,  north,  and  east  of  them,  while  their 
peninsulas  prolong  them  to  the  south. 

The  first  move,  i,  spreads  out  the  sand  toward  the  north  in 
the  great  low  plain  without  a  single  mountain  range.  The  low 
swell  of  the  Valdai  Hills  forms  the  principal  watershed  of  the 
continent.  Move  2  draws  the  heap  of  sand  westward  to  repre- 
sent the  main  axis  of  the  continent,  and  the  great  Iberian  penin- 
sula. 

The  third  move,  3,  extends  this  main  axis  of  the  continent  in 
a  curve  which  reaches  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the  shores 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  central  Alps  form  the  highest  point  of  the 
continent. 

The  fourth  move,  4,  molds  the  basis  of  the  Turco-Grecian 
peninsula  ;  while  6  outlines  the  Italian  peninsula. 

The  secondary  systems  of  the  continent  are  modeled  by  move- 
ments 5  and  I,  while  the  seventh  movement  7,  gives  the  pen- 
insula of  Jutland. 

HOW  TO  MOLD    EUROPE   IN   SAND. 

These  plans  for  modeling  this  continent  were  prepared  by  the 
pupils.  In  the  plans  the  long  sides  of  the  lap-boards  are  as- 
sumed to  extend  from  right  to  left.  At  any  one  recitation  the 
entire  class  modeled  according  to  a  plan  dictated  by  one  of 
the  pupils. 

No.  I. 

Divide  the  western  side  into  three  equal  parts,  marking  the 
points  of  division  i  and  2. 

Divide  the  eastern  side  into  three  equal  parts,  3  and  4. 

Divide  the  northern  side  into  sixths,  marking  the  points,  be- 
ginning at  the  left,  5,6,  7,  8,  9. 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling.  97 

Divide  the  southern  side  into  halves,  and  the  eastern  half  into 
thirds  ;  mark  the  points  lo,  ii,  12,  beginning  at  the  left. 

Place  the  soil  in  the  center,  the  long  sides  of  the  board  being 
horizontal. 

Draw  the  soil  in  a  somewhat  narrow  line  toward  the  point  2 
on  the  west. 

Draw  the  soil  in  a  broad  band  northeast  toward  points  3  and 
9  ;  also  southeast  toward  point  4. 

Draw  the  soil  toward  7  and  8,  and  then  push  it  southward  in 
a  curve,  not  extending  farther  west  than  point  6. 

Draw  some  of  the  soil  in  narrow  bands  toward  points  11  and 
12  on  the  south,  forming  the  Italian  and  Turco-Grecian  penin- 
sulas. 

Finish  by  outline  map,  marking  the  mountains  and  river  sys- 
tems. 

Lottie  Kimple. 

No.  2. 

Divide  the  northern  side  of  the  board  into  halves,  the  eastern 
side  into  thirds,  the  western  side  into  fourths,  and  the  southern 
side  into  halves,  and  bisect  the  eastern  half. 

Placing  the  hands  upon  the  central  pile,  push  some  of  the 
sand  toward  the  northeast  corner  of  the  board.  Returning  the 
hands  to  the  center  of  the  sand,  draw  out  a  narrow  band  to  the 
lowest  mark  on  the  west.  Push  the  sand  in  a  mass  toward  the 
center  of  the  northern  side,  and  from  that  point  draw  some  sand 
in  a  narrow  strip  toward  the  southwest,  to  form  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula.  Now  draw  the  sand  toward  the  most  southern  marker 
on  the  east.  Draw  out  two  narrow  bands  toward  the  marks  on 
the  south.  Shape  the  coast-lines  carefully  according  to  outHne 
map. 

S.  M.  Ely. 


98  Plans  by  Pupils. 

No.  3. 

Turn  the  board  so  that  the  longest  sides  shall  be  horizontal. 

Divide  the  northern  side  into  halves,  and  bisect  the  eastern 
half. 

Divide  the  eastern  side  into  two  equal  parts,  and  then  bisect 
the  southern  half. 

Divide  the  southern  side  of  the  board  into  fifths. 

Divide  the  western  side  into  two  equal  parts,  and  then  bisect 
the  southern  half. 

Place  the  hands  upon  the  clay  at  the  center,  and  draw  it  to 
the  most  easterly  marker  on  the  northern  side.  Draw  the  clay 
in  a  broad  band  toward  the  two  points  on  the  east. 

Draw  out  the  clay  in  a  narrowing  line  toward  the  lower  point 
on  the  western  side. 

Draw  out  the  clay  in  two  short  lines  toward  the  extremities  of 
the  central  fifth  on  the  southern  side. 

Mold  in  the  shore-hne  carefully  according  to  a  good  outline 
map.     Represent  the  mountains-chains,  and  principal  rivers. 

Dorothea  M.  Loucks. 

No.  4. 

Draw  the  molding-clay  into  a  heap  a  Httle  to  the  west  of  the 
center. 

Divide  the  northern  and  the  eastern  borders  into  fourths. 

Divide  the  southern  border  into  halves. 

Divide  the  west  side  into  thirds,  and  then  trisect  the  lower 
third. 

1.  Place  the  hands  upon  the  mold  at  the  center  and  draw  the 
clay  southward,  ending  in  a  narrow  band  at  the  bisecting  point 
on  the  southern  border. 

2.  Next  draw  the  mold  toward  the  southwestern  corner,  the 


Advanced  Work  in  Sand  Modeling.  99 

southern   limit   of  Spain   being  in  a  straight  line  with  the  most 
southern  point  of  division  on  the  western  border. 

3.  Then  push  the  mold  toward  the  most  eastern  fourth  on  the 
northern  border,  terminating  just  east  of  that  point. 

4.  Push  the  clay  north  and  west  about  one-third  the  distance 
from  the  center  to  the  western  border. 

5.  Draw  the  molding-clay  in  a  band  toward  the  southern 
fourth  of  the  eastern  side. 

6.  Complete  the  coast,  making  the  eastern  end  of  the  Cauca- 
sus mountains,  the  southern  point  of  the  Crimea,  and  the  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  all  in  line  with  the  southern  fourth  on  the 
eastern  border. 

Make  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Baltic  Sea  in  line  with 
the  most  northern  fourth  on  the  eastern  border. 

A.  E.  White. 


loo  Comparative  Study  of  Continents. 


dPeosmpi^ical  Contracts!  anti  Kejsemblancesi. 

In  connection  with  the  work  in  modeHng  the  continents  the 
students  should  be  called  upon  to  make  comparisons  for  finding 
the  likenesses  and  differences  between  the  various  continents. 
The  following  samples  of  such  work  are  taken  from  the  class- 
room, except  the  last,  which  is  from  Tales  Philosophy  of  Educa- 
tion. 

COMPARISON  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
RESEMBLANCES. 

1.  Both  are  triangular  in  shape. 

2.  '*       "    wide  at  the  north. 

3.  "       "    narrow  at  the  south. 

4.  "     have  the  primary  highland  in  the  west  and  near  the 

largest  ocean. 

5.  "         "     a  secondary  highland  in  the  east. 

6.  "         "     a  central   plain  divided   into  two  parts  by  a 

transverse  water-parting. 

7.  "         "     their  rivers  collected  into  large  systems. 

8.  They  are  alike   in  the  position  of  their  large   rivers,  as 

in  the  case  of  the 

Mississippi  and  La  Plata, 
St.  Lawrence  "  Amazon, 
MacKenzie  ^*  Orinoco, 
Yukon  "     Magdalena. 

9.  They  are  alike  in  the  position  of  their  highest  mountains. 

Mt.  Logan  in  British  America, 
Mt.  Illampu  in  Bolivia. 
10.  Both  have  a  set  of  islands  off  the  southeastern  coast. 


Comparative  Study  of  Continents.  loi 

DIFFERENCES. 

1.  The  coast  of  North  America  is  deeply  indented,  while  that 
of  South  America  is  not. 

2.  The  transverse  mountain  range  in  North  America  is  low, 
while  in  South  America  it  is  much  higher. 

3.  The  ranges  of  the  secondary  highland  in  North  America 
are  close  together ;  those  of  South  America  are  spread  apart. 

4.  The  largest  river  of  North  America  flows  south ;  that  of 
South  America  flows  east. 

5.  The  central  plain  of  North  America  is  thickly  inhabited, 
while  that  of  South  America  is  almost  uninhabited. 

6.  North  America  was  settled  by  people  from  northern  and 
central  Europe,  while  South  America  was  settled  by  people  from 
southern  Europe. 

7.  The  cities  of  North  America  are  found  all  over  the  coun- 
try ;  those  of  South  America  are  near  the  coast. 

8.  North  America  is  principally  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone, 
while  South  America  lies  mostly  in  the  Torrid  Zone. 

Louise  M.  Weller. 

Nov.  8,  1894. 


COMPARISON  OF  EUROPE  AND  ASIA. 
RESEMBLANCES. 

The  predominant  systems  of  Europe  and  Asia  are  both  in  the 
south. 

The  culminating  points  of  both  are  in  the  south,  in  the  pre- 
dominant mountain  systems,  and  near  the  deepest  oceans. 

Both  have  their  greatest  length  from  east  to  west. 

Both  extend  toward  the  south  in  three  great  peninsulas. 

Both  lie  largely  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone. 

Both  have  great  low  plains  in  the  north. 


I02  Comparative  Study  of  Continents. 

Asia  is  drained  by  a  great  number  of  river  systems  having  few 
tributaries.  The  plateau  of  Thibet  forms  the  drainage  center 
from  which  the  rivers  flow  north,  south,  east,  and  west. 

Europe  is  drained  by  a  great  number  of  small  rivers.  Some 
rise  in  the  predominant  mountain  system,  yet  the  majority  in 
the  low  elevations  of  the  Valdai  Hills. 

DIFFERENCES. 

In  Europe  the  secondary  systems  are  in  the  north  and  east. 
In  Asia  they  surround  the  predominant  system. 

In  Europe  the  great  low  plain  lies  between  the  predominant 
and  secondary  systems. 

In  Asia  it  is  on  the  north  and  west,  and  lies  between  the 
mountain  systems  of  Asia  and  the  secondary  system  of  the 
Urals. 

Asia  is  about  five  times  as  large  as  Europe. 

Asia  has  nearly  twice  as  much  coast-line  as  Europe,  but  in 
proportion  to  area  Europe  has  three  times  as  much  coast-line  as 
Asia. 

Europe  has  one  hundred  and  ninety  square  miles  of  surface 
for  one  mile  of  sea-coast.  Asia  has  five  hundred  square  miles  of 
surface  for  every  mile  of  sea-coast. 

Europe  is  more  indented  than  Asia. 

The  area  of  the  peninsulas  compared  with  that  of  its  entire 
area  is  one  to  four  in  Europe.  In  Asia  it  is  one  to  five  and  a 
half. 

Ida  Hamilton. 

Nov.  lo,  1894. 


Comparative  Study  of  Continents,  103 

COMPARISON  OF  NORTHERN  AND  SOUTHERN  CONTINENTS. 

Taken  in  successive  pairs: — the  Americas  ;  Europe  and  Africa;  Asia  and  Australia. 

RESEMBLANCES. 

Both  continents  are  characterized  by  river  systems. 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  receives  the  water  of  most  of  the  river 
systems  of  both  continents. 

The  largest  rivers  of  both  continents  take  their  rise  in  the 
primary  mountain  systems  of  each. 

The  primary  mountain  system  in  both  northern  and  southern 
continents  is  near  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
.    Both  continents  have  primary  and  secondary  highlands. 

Both  continents  contain  extensive  lake  systems. 

Both  continents  contain  extensive  plains. 

The  culminating  points  of  both  continents  are  near  the  coast. 

DIFFERENCES. 

The  coast-line  of  the  northern  continent  is  deeply  indented, 
while  that  of  the  southern  continent  is  very  regular. 

The  length  of  coast-line  in  the  northern  continent  is  much 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  area  than  the  length  of  coast-line  in 
the  southern  continent. 

The  northern  continents  combined  are  much  larger  than  the 
southern  continents. 

The  northern  continent  is  characterized  by  inland  and  border 
seas ;  the  southern  by  gulfs  and  bays. 

The  northern  continent  lies  mainly  in  the  North  Temperate 
Zone  ;  the  southern  continent  lies  almost  entirely  in  the  Torrid 
Zone. 


I04 


Comparative  Study  of  Continents. 


The  northern  continent  is  densely  inhabited,  while  the  south- 
ern continent  is  comparatively  thinly  settled. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  northern  continent  are  highly  civilized, 
while  those  of  the  southern  have  made  little  progress  in  the  way 
of  civilization. 

The  cities  of  the  northern  continent  are  scattered  in  all  parts 
of  the  continent,  while  those  of  the  southern  continent  are  con: 
fined  to  the  coast. 

Jennie  Gilliland. 

Nov.  7,  1894. 

THE  OLD  AND  NEW  WORLD. 

CONTRASTS. 


The  Old  World. 
History,  Ancient. 

The  principal  mass  of  the  Old  World, 
Asia  and  Europe,  extends  from  east 
to  west,  over  one-half  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  globe. 

The  mountain  ranges  run  from  east 
to  west. 

Asia, — Europe, — lies  within  the  tor- 
rid, north  temperate,  and  north  frigid 
zones. 

Mountain  ranges  somewhat  central. 

Rivers  of  Europe  small. 

Traversed  by  different  mountain 
chains. 

Vast  table-lands  or  plateaus.  The 
mountains  and  plateaus  of  Asia  cover 
five-sevenths  of  its  surface. 

Great  volcanoes  on  the  islands. 

Coast-line  of  Europe  very  much  in- 
dented. 

Inhabitants  white,  dark,  black,  etc. 

Animals:  Lion,  tiger,  leopard,  ele- 
phant, giraffe,  cow,  crocodile,  night- 
ingale, etc. 


The  New  World. 

History,  Modern. 

The  New  World  extends  from  north 
to  south,  over  two-fifths  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  globe. 

The  mountain  ranges  run  from  north 
to  south. 

America  comprehends  all  climatic 
zones,  and  hence  presents  a  greater 
variety  of  phenomena. 

The  mountain  range  extends  like  a 
band  along  the  western  border. 

Great  water  basins.  Rivers  and 
lakes  very  large. 

One  mountain  chain,  the  Andes  and 
Rocky  Mountains. 

Vast  plains  which  form  two-thirds 
of  its  surface. 

Volcanoes  on  the  continent. 

Coast-line  not  so  much  indented  as 
Europe,  but  more  indented  than  Asia 
or  Africa. 

Native  inhabitants  chiefly  red  men. 

Animals:  American  lion,  jaguar, 
panther,  grizzly  bear,  buffalo,  alliga- 
tor, mocking-bird,  etc. 


Comparative  Study  of  Continents. 


105 


RESEMBLANCES. 


Land  in  two  great  masses,  Europe 
and  Africa  in  the  west,  and  Asia  in 
the  east. 

Isthmus  of  Suez  connects  Africa 
with  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  coast-line  of  Europe  is  more 
broken  or  indented  than  that  of  Asia, 
and  still  more  than  that  of  Africa. 

Europe  better  adapted  for  human 
society  than  Asia  or  Africa. 

Europe  i  mile  of  coast  to  150  of  sur- 
face; Africa  i  mile  of  coast  to  620  of 
surface;  Asia  i  mile  of  coast  to  460  of 
surface. 

The  direction  of  the  land  corre- 
sponds with  the  general  direction  of 
the  mountain  masses. 

The  southern  extremity  terminates 
in  a  point  directed  toward  the  south- 
ern ocean,  while  they  go  widening 
toward  the  north. 

The  peninsulas  have  nearly  all  the 
same  direction. 

The  highest  mountain  in  the  Hima- 
laya is  a  little  more  than  5  miles  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 


Land  in  two  great  masses,  North 
and  South  America. 

Isthmus  of  Panama  connects  North 
with  South  America. 

The  coast-line  of  North  America  is 
more  broken  or  indented  than  that  of 
South  America. 

North  America  better  adapted  for 
human  society  than  South  America. 

North  America  i  mile  of  coast  to 
230  of  surface;  South  America  i  mile 
of  coast  to  380  of  surface. 

The  same  as  in  the  Old  World. 


The  same  as  in  the  Old  World. 


The  same  as  in  the  Old  World. 

The  highest  mountain  in  the  Andes 
is  nearly  five  miles  above  the  level  of 
the  sea. 

•^Tate's  Philosophy  of  Education, 


io6  Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp. 


atiiianceD  iHoDelms* 

PULP    MAKING. 

Few  teachers  of  geography  will  dispute  the  value  of  relief- 
maps  as  aids  in  school  v/ork,  but  many  are  not  acquainted  with 
the  proper  use  and  preparation  of  the  most  serviceable  materials 
for  the  construction  of  such  maps.  Many  substances  have  been 
used  in  the  class-room  by  the  writer,  but  none  have  given  greater 
satisfaction  thdin  paper  pulp.  This  material  is  so  clean,  so  pliable, 
and  so  easily  manipulated  that  pupils  and  teachers  having  little 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  modeling  can  make  very  good  rehef-maps, 
while  the  skillful  in  hand  and  artistic  in  soul  can  show  results 
which  will  surprise  all  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  many  uses 
of  the  material  known  as  papier-mache. 

That  the  schoolboy  of  the  past  was  an  adept  in  the  crude 
manufacture  of  papier-mache  we  must  candidly  admit,  and  we  are 
free  to  say,  from  our  own  experience,  that  some  of  the  present 
urchins  are  not  far  behind  in  the  matter.  The  skillful  caster  of 
the  paper  ^' wad  "  relied  upon  its  well-known  plasticity  and  adhe- 
siveness when  he  strove  to  decorate  the  ceiling  with  these  marks 
of  his  lack  of  interest  in  his  geography  lesson.  We  have  long 
since  come  to  sympathize  with  him  in  the  matter  of  disgust  with 
that  species  of  teaching  in  which  the  searching  out  of  long  lists  of 
names  of  unimportant  places  formed  so  large  a  part,  but  it  is  only 
in  recent  years  that  we  have  learned  to  utilize  the  natural  creative 
longing  of  the  child  and  turn  this  ''wad-making"  to  account. 

Set  the  boys  in  the  class  at  the  work  in  the  right  way  and 
they  will  soon  learn  to  prepare  a  fine  grade  of  papier-mache  for 


Pulp  Making,  107 

class  use.  The  paper  used  may  be  the  waste  sheets  from  the 
pencil  tablets,  or  common  newspapers  may  be  made  into  a  fine, 
serviceable  pulp  scarcely  tinged  with  gray.  Tear  the  paper  into 
small  pieces  not  more  than  an  inch  square,  and  fill  a  common 
water-pail  or  jar  with  the  bits  of  paper.  Pour  over  this  a  gallon 
of  boiling  water,  and  let  the  paper  soak  four  or  five  hours.  Then 
d'rain  off  the  excess  of  zvater,  and  macerate  the  mass  by  thrusting 
a  rough  stick  down  into  it  again  and  again,  "  jobbing  "  it  until 
the  whole  is  reduced  to  a  pasty  mass.  After  about  fifteen  min- 
utes of  energetic  work,  the  ''  ne'er  do  well  "  of  your  class  will 
present  to  you  the  best  of  paper  pulp,  very  sm^ooth  and  fine, 
taking  impressions  from  the  very  hnes  of  the  hand.  More  than 
this,  the  boy  will  have  learned  that  he  can  do  some  things  well, 
and  will  be  the  most  eager  to  apply  the  material  to  its  intended  use. 

When  the  pulp  is  ready  for  use,  the  material  may  be  used  in 
the  construction  of  relief-maps  of  all  kinds.  Mold  these  upon 
squares  of  pine  board  or  heavy  pasteboard,  modeling  the  various 
relief  features  according  to  some  good  physical  map.  When  the 
map  becomes  dry,  it  will  be  found  that  fairy  fingers  have  been  at 
work  reducing  and  beautifying  the  whole.  These  maps  may  be 
tinted  and  finished  with  v/ater-color  as  perfectly  as  the  best  What- 
man paper. 

The  shore-line  should  be  lightly  tinted  in  blue  by  means  of  a 
brush  dipped  in  a  solution  of  indigo  or  Prussian  blue.  In  this 
use  of  the  bits  of  paper,  we  see  illustrated  the  pJiilosophy  of  the 
reimiants. 

The  following  method  of  folding  a  map  scale  is  here  given 
because  it  is  believed  that  to  insure  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  in 
the  drawing  of  the  map  of  a  continent,  construction  lines  are  es- 
sential wherever  the  best  degree  of  success  is  desired.  The 
scale  of  miles  here  presented  is  400  to  the  inch,  and  by  allowing 
160,000  square  miles  per  square  inch,  the  approximate  areas  of 


io8 


Folding  the  Map  Scale. 


the  continents  may  be  calculated  with  ease.     In  the  higher  classes 
this  work  will  not  fail  to  arouse  interest. 


a 

FOLDING  THE   MAP   SCALE. 

Take  a  strip  of  paper  one  inch  wide  and 
twelve  inches  long. 

1.  Mark  the  upper  end  of  it  a  and  the  lower 
end  b  (Fig.  49). 

2.  Fold  the  strip  in  half,  placing  b  over  a, 
Mark  the  central  crease  6". 

3.  Fold  the  upper  end  a  down  to  the  central 
crease,  and  mark  the  new  crease  3''. 

4.  Divide  the  lower  half  of  the  strip  into 
three  equal  parts,  and  mark  the  lower  crease  2'\ 

5.  Fold  b  up  to  6,  and  mark  the  crease  i". 

6.  Reverse  crease  2,  and   push   the   paper 
toward  a  so  that  i  and  2  cannot  be  seen. 

7.  Turn  the  strip  over  so  that  all  the  marks 
are  hidden  from  view. 

8.  Fold  the  end  b  up  to  touch  the  back  of 
crease   i.     Mark  the  new  crease  ^". 

If  the  strip  of  paper  be  taken  as  twelve 
inches  in  length,  this  scale  may  be  used  in 
measuring  any  number  of  inches  or  half  inches. 
Thus  the  distance  from  ^  to  6  is  six  inches ; 
that  from  ^  to  3  is  three  inches;  from  2  to  b  \s 
two  inches;  from  i  to  2  is  one  inch ;  from  6  to 
'  2  is  four  inches,  etc.  Half  inches  may  be  laid 
off  by  the  fold  at  the  lower  end  of  the  scale. 
■  ^^'  This  scale  may  be  used  in  preparing  the  out- 

lines for  maps  to  be  used  in  the  regular  work  of  the  classes  in 


6' 


'A 


V- 


s^:^J^4, 


■^■^, ' 


4 


"4i 


^ 


y 


's? 


^^ 


Fig.  50. 
pulp  map  of  north  america. 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp.  109 

geography  and  history,  or  in  the  making  of  outlines  for  pulp  maps. 
Diagrams  for  all  of  the  continents  may  be  made  easily  by  use 
of  this  scale.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  piece  of  paper  should 
be  an  exact  number  of  inches  long.  The  size  of  the  map  desired 
will  fix  the  length  of  the  strip,  and  the  foldings  as  given  above 
will  show  the  proportional  number  of  the  new  units.  Any  good 
maps  of  the  continents  may  be  used  in  making  the  outlines,  but 
for  convenience  we  have  given  diagrams  for  all  the  continents. 
When  the  strip  is  taken  twelve  inches  long,  the  scale  becomes 
400  miles  to  the  inch. 

MAPS   IN   PAPIER  MACHI!. 

North  America. 

The  modeling  of  pulp  maps  should  be  done  upon  smooth  pine 
boards,  and  the  work  mounted  upon  card-board  afterward. 

Thin  boards  may  be  fastened  together  by  nailing  cleats  at 
the  back.  Upon  such  a  molding-board  the  outline  of  the  conti- 
nent should  be  drawn  to  a  convenient  scale,  say  400  miles  to  the 
inch.  The  accompanying  diagram  may  be  used  for  the  purpose. 
In  making  a  set  of  such  maps  it  is  well  to  adopt  some  uniform 
scale,  since  better  ideas  of  relative  sizes  may  thus  be  given. 

Measure  the  vertical  AB  =  11  inches  ;  the  horizontal  BC  =  6 
inches.  Draw  AC.  Lay  off  AB  ==  7  inches,  and  AG  =  2  inches. 
Draw  BB  =  6  inches,  and  B)F=  2  inches.  Draw  ABy  BC,  FC, 
and  GF. 

For  larger  maps  use  double  or  triple  these  dimensions. 

The  pulp  prepared  and  the  outHne  drawn  or  traced,  the  pupils 
are  ready  to  mold  the  map.  Three  or  more  pupils  can  work  at  a 
map  at  one  time,  and  the  teacher  should  allow  each  member  of 
a  class  to  do  some  of  the  work,  especially  if  one  large  map  of 
double  the  dimensions  here  given  is  made  by  the  entire  class. 


no 


Molding  North  America, 


The  pulp  should  be  spread  out  in  a  uniform  flat  layer,  carefully 
molded  up  to  the  shore-lines  of  the  continent.  This  may  be 
done  by  using  a  pointed  stick  to  cut  and  push  back  the  pulp  at 
the  proper  points.     Thus  the  indented  eastern   coast,  and  even 


Fig.  51. 

the  labyrinth  of  islands  of  the  northern  coast  may  be  modeled. 
Bo  not  slight  the  northern  coast.  The  islands,  to  be  sure,  may 
not  be  of  so  great  importance  as  those  farther  south,  but  habits 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp,  m 

of  slighting  the  work  should  not  here  be  formed.  The  produc- 
tion of  the  map  of  the  continent  outlined  in  the  flat  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  at  least  one  lesson-period.  The  children  should  be 
questioned  in  regard  to  the  form  of  the  continent,  its  indented 
coasts,  and  the  general  relation  to  other  land  bodies.  The  regu- 
lar matter  of  the  general  lesson  upon  the  continent  should  be 
given  by  some  pupils  while  the  others  are  modeling  the  map. 

Next  day  the  pupils  can  locate  the  parts  of  the  continent 
where  the  plateau  sections  are  to  be  represented  by  somewhat 
increased  thickness  of  pulp. 

Get  a  physical  or  relief  map  and  study  the  plateaus  and  moun- 
tains of  North  America.  Let  the  pupils  dampen  the  parts  where 
the  plateaus  are  to  be  placed,  and  spread  the  fresh  pulp  out  in  a 
thin  layer.     The  mountain   ranges  will  rise  above  these  sections, 


Fig.  52. 

but  do  not  attempt  to  represent  the  mountains  at  this  stage  of 
the  work.  Put  on  the  pulp  in  small  quantities,  and  let  the  pupils 
be  careful  to  make  the  work  delicate.  The  plateau  section 
which  forms  the  basis  of  the  Rocky-mountain  system  extends 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  broadest 
part  lies  within  the  United  States,  and  is  about  1000  miles  in 
width.  It  is  the  broadest  mountain  system  of  the  globe.  In  the 
molding,  this  plateau  will  be  represented  by  a  band  of  pulp  about 
5  inches  wide  (scale  200)  at  its  broadest  part,  and  covering  the 
whole  of  Alaska,  British  Columbia,  and  Mexico,  except  the  low 
section  along  the  sea-coast.  In  like  manner  the  long  and  moun- 
tainous isthmus  of  Central  America  may  be  represented.  On  the 
eastern  side  of  the  continent  may  be   molded  the  narrow  base  of 


112  Molding  North  America, 

the  Appalachian  Highlands ;  also  the  plateau  of  Labrador  with 
the  Height  of  Land  extending  completely  across  the  Great  Cen- 
tral Plain,  and  dividing  it  into  northern  and  southern  slopes 
nearly  equal  in  extent.  This  should  blend  neatly  into  the  flat 
portions  first  laid  on. 

Having  finished  the  basal  plateaus,  the  primary  and  secondary 
mountain  systems  may  be  molded.  Place  quantities  of  pulp  in 
masses  along  the  western  coast  upon  the  main  plateau.  Two 
lofty  ranges  cross  the  western  plateau, — the  Rocky  mountains 
and  the  system  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Numerous  short  ranges 
lie  between.  These  mountains  may  be  represented  by  making 
little  elevations  and  modeling  the  peaks  and  ridges  by  means  of 
a  button-hook  or  smooth  piece  of  wood.  The  highest  peaks 
should  be  carefully  located,  and  the  lines  of  volcanoes  repre- 
sented. Thus  we  should  locate  the  Central  American  group,  the 
wonderful  Mexican  group  with  Orizaba  and  Popocatepetl,  the 
California  and  Oregon  groups,  and  the  long  line  of  the  peninsula 
of  Alaska.  The  secondary  systems  of  the  eastern  part  should  be 
molded  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  primary  system,  but  of 
course  should  be  made  much  lower  in  elevation. 

Let  the  molded  map  now  be  set  aside  to  dry.  In  two  or 
three  days  there  will  be  found  upon  the  board  a  map  reduced  in 
thickness  and  yet  keeping  all  the  detail  of  the  children's  work, — 
a  pure  white  map  upon  which  fairy  fingers  would  seem  to  have 
been  working  to  reduce  and  render  beautiful  the  whole.  The 
map  thus  made  will  take  water-color  as  perfectly  as  the  best 
Whatman  paper,  and  great  beauty  of  finish  may  be  given-  to  the 
work.  The  entire  shore-line  should  be  lightly  tinted  in  blue  by 
means  of  a  brush  dipped  in  a  solution  of  indigo  or  Prussian  blue. 
The  rivers  should  be  carefully  traced  in  pencil  from  source  to 
mouth.  Thus  any  mistakes  can  be  corrected,  and  then  the  whole 
river  system  finished  in  ink.     It  will  be  well  to  make  a  careful 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp.  113 

study  of  these  systems,  since  the  subject  may  be  presumed  to  be 
more  useful  to  our  pupils  than  the  study  of  systems  more  remote. 
No  pupil  who  has  traced  these  various  river  systems  of  North 
America,  carefully  following  each  river  and  tributary  from  source 
to  mouth,  can  fail  to  have  the  general  facts  firmly  impressed  upon 
his  memory.  He  will  thus  remember  that  the  Mississippi,  with 
its  branches,  affords  a  greater  amount  of  inland  navigation  than 
all  the  streams,  great  and  small,  which  drain  Europe. 

North  America  is  noted  for  its  great  lakes.  Along  the  Hne 
of  contact  of  the  oldest  geological  formations  of  the  continent 
they  stretch  out  in  a  series  that  includes  the  five  great  lakes  of  the 
St.  Lawrence ;  Winnepeg  of  the  Saskatchewan  ;  and  Athabasca, 
Great  Slave,  and  Great  Bear  of  the  Mackenzie  system.  These 
should  be  represented  on  the  map  by  depressions  touched  with 
blue  water-color. 

In  advanced  classes  the  work  upon  the  water-centers  of  the 
continent  may  be  easily  shown  by  marks  placed  in  the  proper 
places.  The  volcanic  peaks  may  be  distinguished  by  gluing  gold- 
foil  upon  the  peaks  molded  to  represent  them.  The  volcanoes 
of  Mexico  and  of  Alaska  should  be  marked  in  this  way.  After 
the  map  is  completed  it  may  be  removed  from  the  board,  and 
then  glued  to  a  sheet  of  pasteboard  or  to  a  piece  of  muslin. 
Strips  of  wood  nailed  at  the  ends  give  finish  to  the  map.  In  re- 
moving the  pulp  map  from  tbe  board  a  case-knife  may  be  used. 
The  children  will  learn  to  make  the  maps  very  easily,  and  the 
teacher  will  be  surprised  at  the  results  which  may  be  obtained. 
The  whole  operation  of  modeHng  should  be  used  as  a  means  and 
not  as  an  eitd,  still  the  results  will  not  be  such  that  the  teacher 
will  care  to  see  them  entirely  lost  to  service  in  the  succeeding 
terms.  We  have  in  mind  a  school  where  the  entire  series  of  relief- 
maps  of  the  continents — beautifully  modeled  in  white  and  gold 
and  blue,  with  a  dash  of  sienna  or  yellow  here  and  there  to  mark 


tt4  Molding  South  America, 

a  desert  or  a  depression  below  the  sea — adorns  the  walls  of  the 
school  room,  and  the  entire  cost  of  the  set  was  only  sixty  cents. 
But  the  feeling  of  power  and  ownership,  which  comes  to  those 
children  when  they  see  their  own  work,  cannot  be  estimated  in 
dollars  and  cents.     And  shall  we  then  call  it  valueless  ? 


South  America. 

According  to  a  scale  of  200  miles  to  the  inch,  South  America 
would  he  represented  23  inches  long  and  16  inches  wide.  Use 
double  the  dimensions  given  in  the  diagram  if  a  large  map  is 
wanted. 

Draw  the  vertical  AB  =  23  inches;  measure  6  inches  to  C; 
draw  a  horizontal  line,  and  lay  off  CD  =  12,  and  C£  =  4;  also 
CF  =  4  inches. .    Draw  AD,  DB,  AE,  and  EF. 

Another  excellent  size  is  given  by  increasing  each  dimension  by  one  half  itself. 
On  such  plan  AB  becomes  lyf,  AC=  4I,  CD  =  9,  CE  —  3,  and  CF=  3. 

Having  prepared  the  pulp  and  drawn  the  outline,  the  pupils 
are  ready  to  mold  the  map.  The  pulp  is  spread  out  in  a  uniform 
layer  about  one-fourth  inch  thick,  the  pupils  carefully  modeling 
it  up  to  the  shore-lines.  The  production  of  the  map  of  the  conti- 
nent outlined  in  the  flat  will  furnish  enough  work  for  one  lesson- 
period,  but  the  children  should  be  questioned  in  regard  to  the 
triangular  form  of  South  America,  and  the  coast-line  unbroken  by 
great  gulfs  or  large  enclosed  seas. 

Then  the  pupils  may  locate  the  parts  of  the  continent  where 
the  plateau  sections  are  to  be  represented  by  somewhat  increased 
thickness  of  the  paper  pulp.  These  sections  are  :  i.  The  Plateau 
of  the  Andes ;  2.  The  Plateau  of  Brazil ;  3.  The  Plateau  of 
Guiana. 

Of  these  plateaus,  that  of  the  Andes  is  by  far  the  most  promi- 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp, 


tiS 


nent.  It  should  be  represented  on  the  map  by  an  irregular  band 
of  increased  elevation,  varying  from  one-half  inch  to  two  inches 
in   width   (scale    200),  and  stretching   along  the   entire   western 


Fig.  53. 
coast.     This  should  blend  into  the  flat  portion  which  represents 
the  Great  Central  Plain,  extending  along  the  whole  eastern  base 
of  the  Andes,  and  interrupted  only  by  the  low  plateaus  of  Brazil 


ii6  Molding  South  America, 

and  Guiana.  The  great  plain  is  usually  considered  under  three 
divisions:  i.  The  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco;  2.  The  Selvas  of  the 
Amazon  ;  3.  The  Pampas  of  La  Plata.  The  water-sheds  divid- 
ing these  sections  are  insignificant  in  elevation. 

The  pupils  may  now  proceed  to  mold  the  mountains  of  the 
continent.  Place  quantities  of  the  pulp  in  parallel  ridges  or  lines 
along  the  western  coast  upon  the  Andean  plateau.  These  will 
form  the  border  wall  of  the  plateau,  and  should  be  molded  into 
peaks  and  elevations  by  means  of  a  spatula  or  a  common  steel 
button-hook.  The  elevations  should  not  exceed  one-quarter  inch 
in  height,  The  Andean  system  should  be  formed  of  two  lines  of 
elevations  in  the  central  portion,  of  three  lines  at  the  northern 
extremity,  and  of  one  at  the  southern  extremity.  The  general 
chain  of  the  Andes  is  nowhere  broken  through,  and  thus  the  great 
mountain  system  forms  a  complete  separation  between  the  waters 
which  fall  into  the  Pacific  and  those  which  flow  into  the  At- 
lantic. 

The  chief  peaks  of  the  Andes,  such  as  Aconcagua,  Illampu, 
and  Nevada  de  Sorata,  should  be  located,  as  should  also  the  vari- 
ous groups  of  lofty  volcanoes.  The  broad  table-land  of  Brazil 
should  be  crossed  by  several  irregular  ranges  of  low  mountains, 
the  highest  ranges  situated  along  the  southeastern  coast.  The 
mountains  of  Guiana,  consisting  of  the  Acarai  and  Pacarayma 
ranges,  may  be  represented  by  elevations  somewhat  higher  than 
those  of  Brazil. 

A  full  lesson  period  may  well  be  spent  in  tracing  the  courses 
of  the  rivers.  Do  this  at  first  in  pencil, — mistakes  can  be  erased, 
— and  then  go  over  the  lines  with  blue  ink  or  water-color.  The 
rivers  should  be  traced  from  source  to  mouth.  The  main  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon  should  be  shown  upon  the  map.  In  a  com- 
plete map  the  wonderful  little  river,  the  Cassiquiare,  which  con- 
nects the  Rio  Negro  of  the  Amazonian  system  with  the  Orinoco, 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp,  117 

will  be  traced  in  position.  La  Plata  and  its  tributaries  draining 
the  Pampas  of  the  south,  should  also  be  shown. 

In  the  central  portion  of  the  plateau  section  of  the  Andes,  a 
little  depression  may  be  painted  blue  to  represent  Lake  Titicaca, 
the  highest  large  lake  in  the  world.  The  Desert  of  Atacama 
may  be  shown  by  a  dash  of  color,  such  as  sepia  or  sienna. 

The  groups  of  volcanoes  may  be  distinguished  by  gluing  small 
pieces  of  gold-foil  upon  the  tips  of  the  elevations  molded  to  rep- 
resent them.  Thus  may  be  represented  the  volcano  Tolima,  and 
the  linear  groups  of  the  plateau  of  Quito  containing  Chimborazo 
and  Pichincha,  Cayambe,  and  the  famous  Cotoapaxi,  the  highest 
active  volcano  in  the  world.  The  volcanoes  of  the  central  group, 
Arequipa  and  Sahama,  and  the  remarkable  Chilean  range,  includ- 


SoUTHyXMCKlC/l 
Fig.  54. 

ing  Antuco  and  Corcovado,  should  also  be  shown  upon  the  com- 
plete map. 

The  map  should  be  removed  from  the  board,  and  glued  to  a 
sheet  of  heavy  pasteboard.  A  thin  case-knife  passed  under  the 
map  will  readily  enable  one  to  raise  it  from  the  board.  Large 
maps  may  be  fastened  to  the  mounting  card  by  brass  paper- 
clasps.  Strips  of  wood  tacked  to  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of 
the  chart  will  give  completeness  to  the  map. 

Use  the  modeling  as  a  means^  not  as  an  end.  Teachers  will  be 
surprised  to  find  that  the  children  will  make  maps  far  more 
beautiful  than  anything  they  could  draw  in  the  given  time,  if  they 
are  allowed  to  make  use  of  this  simple  medium  in  molding. 
Pupils  in  my  own  classes  have  improved  upon  my  instructions, 


1 1 8  Molding  Africa . 

and  have  modeled  maps  in  which  Hght  gray  pulp  made  from 
newspapers  represented  the  lowlands,  while  the  pure  white  pulp 
was  used  for  the  mountains  and  plateaus. 

A  single  trial  will  convince  any  one  of  the  value  of  the  mate- 
rial. 

Africa. 

To  make  the  diagram  for  Africa,  draw  the  horizontal  base  line 
AB  =  12  inches.  Measure  westward  BC  =^  i-J  inches,  and  bisect 
AC  dit  D.  Lay  off  DE  =  4J  inches  north,  DF  —  i  inch  east,  and 
FG  =  8  inches  south.  Draw  the  horizontal  GII=^  ij  inches  east. 
Lay  off  BI  =  I  inch  to  the  west  of  D.  Draw  GI,  and  make  IK 
=z  i|-  inches.  Draw  GA,  and  the  horizontal  westward  through 
K  to  L  in  GA.  Lay  off  DM  ^^  3  inches  northward  from  D,  and 
MN  =  3  inches  eastward  from  M.  Draw  the  lines  MN,  NC  and 
BH.  Describe  the  arc  AE  with  /  as  a  center  and  AI  as  the 
radius. 

Draw  the  outline  of  the  continent,  and  then  model  the  map 
according  to  the  directions  given  for  the  work  upon  North 
America.  It  will  be  noticed  that  Africa  is  the  largest  of  the  con- 
tinents, after  Asia.  It  has  a  uniform  contour,  and  consists  of  one 
great  elevated  plateau.  There  are  no  great,  connected  mountain 
systems.  Its  plan  of  structure  combines  that  of  the  Old  World 
and  of  the  New. 

In  form  the  continent  resembles  South  America,  but  the 
primary  mountains  are  found  in  the  eastern  instead  of  in  the 
western  part.  Model  the  main  peaks  of  these  mountains,  Kenia 
and  Kilma  Njaro.  Of  the  two  ranges  on  either  side  of  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  the  western  or  Ruwenzori  range  is  that  which  was 
anciently  called  "The  Mountains  of  the  Moon." 

The  secondary  m^ountain  ranges  are  the  Atlas,  the  Cameroons, 
and  the  Snow  mountains.     Model  these  mountains  in  2:>osition, 


Fig.  53. 
pulp  map  of  south  america. 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp. 


119 


and  mark  the  general  slope  of  the  continent  from  south  to  north, 
as  shown  in  the  basin  of  the  river  Nile,  extending  over  30  degrees 
of  latitude.     Trace  this    river  in  position,  and  also  the  Congo, 


AL-^L 


Fig.  56. 

Niger,  and  Zambesi.  Although  Africa  has  these  great  rivers,  it 
is  the  dryest  of  the  continents.  When  the  pulp  map  is  ready, 
mark  the  position  of  the  great  lakes  Victoria  Nyanza,  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  Tanganyika ;  also  Lake  Tchad, 


I20  Molding  Australia, 

Locate  the  great  Desert  of  Sahara,  the  Libyan  and  Nubian 
deserts  in  the  north,  and  the  Kalahari  desert  in  the  south.  These 
may  be  tinted  with  sienna. 

The  Nile  river  overflows  its  banks  for  several  months  each 
year.  It  thus  stretches  a  band  of  verdure  across  the  desert  re- 
gion through  which  it  flows  to  the  sea.  This  beautiful  valley, 
with  the  delta  at  the  mouth,  was  the  seat  of  Egyptian  civilization, 
next  to  that  of  the  plains  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  oldest 
in  the  world. 

Australia. 

Draw  a  horizontal  base  line,  AB,  from  Shark  Bay  to  Brisbane, 
making  it  6  inches  in  length  (Fig.  57).  Lay  off  2}  inches  from 
A  to  C,  and  draw  a  Hne  perpendicular  to  AB.  Measure  3  inches 
upward  to  D  (Victoria,  North  Australia),  and  |  inch  to  E  (Great 
Bight).  Draw  DF  =  i|  inches,  parallel  to  AB.  Measure  i 
inch  to  the  left  from  B  to  G,  and  draw  GH  =  3J  inches,  perpen- 
dicular to  AB.  The  point  H  locates  Hobarttown  in  Tasmania. 
Draw  through  A  the  line  //  perpendicular  to  AB,  and  make  AT 
=  I  inch  (Northwest  Cape),  and  A/  =  i|-  inches  southward  from 
A.  Draw  BB,  FB,  BH,  HE,  EJ,  and  DI.  Locate  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  dX  K  =  i^  inches  from  D.  Draw  the 
coast-line. 

Draw  the  outline  of  the  continent,  or,  if  more  rapid  work  is 
desired,  the  shore-line  may  be  traced  by  placing  a  piece  of  black 
tracing-paper  between  the  board  and  the  map,  and  then  passing 
the  pencil  point  around  the  entire  outline. 

Mold  the  flat  layer  of  pulp  as  given  in  the  directions  for 
molding  the  other  continents ;  then  mold  the  plateau  sections 
and  watersheds. 

The  typical  structure  of  a  continent  is  as  follows : 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp,  121 

1.  K  primary  highland  region  on  one  side. 

2.  Secondary  higJilands  on  the  opposite  side,  trending  toward 
the  primary. 

3.  A  depression  between  the  two  systems. 

Australia  well  illustrates  this  plan  of  structure  in  its  simplest 
form,  and  so  asserts  its  claim  to  the  title  of  continent.  No  isl- 
and, however  great  its  extent,  shows  such  conformation.  It 
should  be  noticed  that  AustraHa  resembles  Africa  more  closely 
than  any  other  continent. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent,  the  basis  of  the  predomi- 
nant system  of  mountains  should  extend  from  York  Peninsula  on 
the  north  to  Portland  Bay  on  the  south.  Let  the  basin  of  the 
Murray  be  shown,  and  also  the  valleys  of  its  tributaries,  the  Dar- 
ling and  the  Lachlan.  Mold  the  lowlands  of  the  lake  region,  and 
mark  the  Grey  and  FHnders  ranges.  The  land  in  the  west  and 
northwest  regions  of  Australia  has  the  character  of  a  tableland 
of  moderate  height  studded  with  groups  of  small  mountains.  On 
the  general  level  of  the  tableland  are  vast  plains,  sometimes  sink- 
ing into  low  swamps.  Nearly  the  whole  of  this  section  should 
be  finished  as  a  low  tableland. 

In  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent,  near  the  Great  Aus- 
tralian Bight,  lies  the  Great  Victoria  Desert.  This  may  be 
marked  upon  the  relief-map  by  an  irregular  patch  of  buff  color. 

The  ranges  of  the  predominant  mountain  system  may  now  be 
molded.  The  Australian  Alps,  containing  the  peaks  Mount 
Kosciusko  and  Mount  Hotham,  the  Blue  Mountains,  Liverpool 
Range,  etc.,  belong  to  this  system.  In  the  north  and  west  are 
secondary  systems  of  comparatively  small  elevation.  No  consid- 
erable mountains  have  been  discovered  in  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent, but  there  are  many  low  ranges  and  some  groups  of  mount- 
ains. Central  Mount  Stuart,  Mount  Leichhardt,  Mount  Wilson, 
and  others  may  be  shown  on  the  molded  map.     The  low  water- 


122 


Molding  Australia. 


shed  between  the  rivers  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  the  Vic- 
toria river  may  also  be  represented.  The  rivers  should  now  be 
outlined  with  a  pencil,  taking  care  that  the  courses  be  run  from 
source  to  mouth.     This  will  be  found  one  of  the  most  interesting 


Fig.  57. 


and  instructive  lessons  for  the  pupils.  Lakes  Eyre,  Gairdner, 
Torrens,  and  Austin  should  be  located  and  marked. 

The  Great  Barrier  Reef,  extending  one  thousand  miles  along 
the  northeastern  coast,  may  be  represented  by  a  line  in  white. 

It  will  add  much  to  the  beauty  and  practical  utility  of  this 
map  if  the  islands  of  the  East  Indies  be  molded  in  their  relative 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp.  123 

positions  in  regard  to  Asia  and  Australia.  The  numerous  volca- 
noes of  the  section,  when  shown  upon  the  map,  will  readily  sug- 
gest the  name  *'  Sea  of  Fire  "  for  the  Pacific. 


Asia. 

Draw  a  base  line  AB  from  the  Bosphorus  to  Yezo,  and  let 
this  be  14  inches  long  (Fig.  58).  From  A  drop  a  perpendicular 
6  inches  to  C  (Bab-el-Mandeb).  Draw  the  perpendicular  BD 
51^  inches  to  Berhing  Strait.  Lay  off  AE  to  the  right  5|-  inches, 
and  drop  the  perpendicular  7  inches  to  /^(Cape  Comorin).  Draw 
the  horizontal  line  FG  4^  inches  to  the  right  (Cape  Cambodia). 
From  A  lay  off  to  the  right  3J  inches  to  B"  (head  of  Caspian  Sea) ; 
also  6i  inches  to  /,  from  which  erect  the  perpendicular//,  4  inches 
to  /,  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Urals.  Draw  H/,  JD,  and 
BG.  Find  the  point  K  (Calcutta)  where  the  lines  FD  and  HG 
would  intersect.  Find,  also,  the  point  L  (Hydrabad)  where  HF 
and  CB  would  intersect.  Complete  the  outline  by  any  good 
map.  This  outline  of  Asia  is  arranged  for  the  meridian  of  Cal- 
cutta. 

Having  drawn  the  outline  of  the  continent  and  noted  its 
remarkable  peninsulas  and  chains  of  islands,  the  pupils  may  pro- 
ceed to  mold  the  mountain  masses  of  the  continent  in  detail. 
Model  the  immense  mass  of  elevated  land  that  forms  the  interior 
of  the  continent.  This  mass  is  crowned  by  the  great  mountain- 
knot  of  Pamir — "  the  roof  of  the  world."  Radiating  from  this 
we  find  the  highest  mountains  of  the  globe.  Four  great  ranges, 
the  Himalaya,  Kuen  lun,  Karakorum,  and  Yung  Ling  mountains 
extend  from  east  to  west,  and  form  mountain  barriers  crowned 
with  colossal  mountain  peaks. 

After  the  great  plateau  of  Thibet  is  molded,  these  ranges  may 
be  modeled  in  position.     Some  of  the  highest  peaks  should  be 


124 


Molding  Asia, 


shown  in  position.  Mounts  Everest,  Kunchinjunga,  Dhawal- 
aghiri,  and  other  important  crests  will  appear  upon  a  good  map. 

Model  the  secondary  mountain  systems  according  to  any  good 
physical  map. 

Notice  the  position  of  the  great  plains  of  Asia.     Here  all  of 


Fig.  58. 

the  great  plains  are  on  the  borders  of  the  continent,  terminating 
the  slopes  from  the  main  highlands  which  are  in  the  center. 
Thus  the  rivers  of  the  continent  find  their  way  to  the  sea  in  long 
and  nearly  parallel  courses,  with  little  tendency  to  combination. 
This  fact  will  become  very  clear  to  the  pupil  as  he  traces  the 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp.  125 

courses  of  the  rivers  from  their  hydrographic  center  in  the  great 
plateau  down  the  slopes  and  into  the  ocean.  Thus  the  Amoor, 
the  Yang-tse-kiang,  Hoang-ho — that  great  "  Sorrow  of  Han  " — 
will  be  traced  ;  so  also  the  Ganges,  Brahmapootra,  and  the  In- 
dus ;  the  Arctic  rivers  Obi,  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena. 

The  great  desert  regions  of  this  continent  should  be  shown 
by  coloring  the  regions  with  a  light  wash  of  sienna,  or  light 
brown.     Lakes  and  seas  should  also  appear  in  position. 

Europe. 

Draw  the  line  AB  =  yi  inches  to  represent  the  base-line  from 
Oporto  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains.  Lay 
off  4  inches  from  A  to  C,  and  draw  through  C  a  line  perpendicu- 
lar to  AB.  Lay  off  upon  this  line  4J  inches  to  D  (North  Cape) ; 
then  31  inches  to  E,  the  head  of  the  Baltic  Sea  ;  and  2  inches  to 
/*^(Riga).  Lay  off  CG  =  li  inches  southward  (Cape  Matapan). 
Draw  a  horizontal  through  D,  and  lay  off  3  inches  westward  to  H 
(North  Cape,  Iceland),  and  lay  off  DI,  2J  inches  eastward  to  a 
point  in  the  Ural  Mountains.  Draw  AD  and  BI,  and  drop  a  per- 
pendicular from  H  to  AB  at  /.  The  line  H/  cuts  A£)  at  K 
(Brest).  Draw  KG,  cutting  AB  at  L  (Genoa).  Draw  KF  and 
CH,  cutting  KF  Sit  M  (Copenhagen)  and  AD  at  N  (The  Naze). 
Draw  IG,  cutting  AB  at  O,  the  mouth  of  the  Danube.  At  A 
draw  a  line  perpendicular  to  AB,  and  make  AP  =  ^  inch  (Cape 
Finisterre),  and  AR  =  1  inch  (Strait  of  Gibraltar).  Draw  the 
lines  P/  and  PL,  and  complete  the  outline  of  the  continent. 

After  the  pulp  has  been  prepared  and  the  outline  of  the  con- 
tinent drawn,  the  pupils  may  be  allowed  to  mold  the  map.  The 
production  of  the  map  of  this  continent  outlined  in  the  flat  will 
be  sufficient  for  one  or  two  lesson-periods.  Europe  has  a  very 
long  line  of  junction   with  Asia,  therefore  the  best  maps  will 


126 


Molding  Europe. 


show  parts  of  this  outlying  continent.  In  some  cases  it  is  well  to 
model  Europe  and  Asia  as  one  great  land  mass.  In  order  that 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  may  be  properly  shown,  Africa  should  be 
modeled  in  part.  These  may  be  shown  simply  in  the  flat,  without 
the  mountains  and  plateaus. 


Fig.  59. 


Procure  a  good  physical  map  and  study  the  plateaus  and 
mountains  of  Europe.  Dampen  the  parts  where  the  plateaus  are 
to  be  placed,  and  spread  out  the  fresh  pulp  in  a  thin  layer.  Put 
on  the  pulp  in  small  quantities,  and  take  care  to  make  the  work 
delicate. 

Europe    in  its  western  part  is  mainly  a  network  of  moun- 


Modeling  in  Paper  Pulp,  127 

tain  chains,  without  very  extensive  plateaus.  The  whole  eastern 
part  consists  of  a  vast  low  plain  continued  in  a  moderately  wide 
strip  bordering  the  Baltic  and  North  seas,  and  extending  to  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  The  dividing  line  between  these  two  sections  is 
formed  by  the  secondary  mountain  system  consisting  of  the  Car- 
pathian, Sudetic,  and  Riesen  mountains,  and  lower  ranges  ex- 
tending nearly  to  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea.  The  continent 
may  be  considered  naturally  under  two  great  divisions,  High 
Europe  and  Low  Europe.  A  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhine  to  that  of  the  Dniester  marks  this  division. 

Mold  the  basis  of  the  central  highlands,  leaving  narrow  bands 
of  depression  to  mark  the  valleys  of  the  Danube,  the  Po,  and  the 
Garonne,  etc.  Cover  the  three  peninsulas,  the  Spanish,  Italian, 
and  Grecian,  which  constitute  the  southern  highlands.  The 
eastern  part  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  belongs  to  the  Great 
Low  Plain ;  the  western  part  forms  the  Scandinavian  Plateau. 
On  the  coast  of  Norway  are  found  those  most  remarkable  forma- 
tions— deep,  narrow,  vertical  arms,  or  rather  fingers  of  the  sea — 
known  as  fiords.  The  sea  is  thus  admitted  to  the  very  heart  of 
the  Scandinavian  Alps,  and  the  perpendicular  walls  of  these 
transverse  valleys  are  often  several  thousand  feet  high.  The 
fiords  may  be  represented  by  transverse  cuts  in  the  shore-line  of 
the  plateau. 

Low  Europe  is  bordered  on  nearly  every  side  by  mountains. 
On  the  east  are  the  Urals,  on  the  south  the  Caucasus,  on  the 
southwest  the  secondary  highlands  of  the  continent,  and  on  the 
northwest  the  highlands  of  Scandinavia.  The  greater  part  of 
this  section  should  be  left  in  plain  relief,  since  it  is  nearly  uni- 
form in  surface  and  character,  and  v/ithout  natural  subdivisions, 
if  we  except  such  as  are  made  by  the  inland  seas.  This  plain  is 
slightly  elevated  near  the  centre,  where  the  Valdai  Hills,  iioo 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  form  the  principal  watershed  of  Europe. 


128  Molding  Europe. 

Having  located  the  basal  plateau  sections  of  Europe,  it  now 
remains  to  mold  the  primary  and  secondary  mountain  systems. 
The  main  system  is  composed  of  a  highly  complex  series  of 
mountain  chains  extending  along  the  northern  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  in  a  great  curve  from  Gibraltar  to  Asia  Minor. 
The  central  part  is  highest,  the  Alps  forming  the  culminating 
point  of  the  continent  in  Mont  Blanc,  15,787  feet  high.  The 
sharp  peak  of  the  Matterhorn,  the  broader  Wetterhorn,  Monte 
Rosa,  and  the  Pic  du  Midi  should  be  molded  in  miniature.  More 
than  four  hundred  peaks  of  the  Alps  rise  above  the  snow-hne. 

The  modeling  of  mountain  ranges  and  the  formation  of  val- 
leys are  closely  connected.  When  elevations  were  first  formed 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  valleys  appeared  between  them  as 
necessarily  as  shadows  follow  light.  The  Alps  are  formed  of 
numerous  ranges  divided  by  comparatively  deep  valleys,  which 
tend  toward  parallelism  with  the  general  direction  of  the  whole 
mass  ;  but  in  many  parts  deep  transverse  valleys  intersect  the 
prevailing  directions  of  the  ridges,  and  serve  to  facilitate  the  mi- 
gration of  animals  and  plants,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  trade 
between  nations.  These  deep  depressions  between  mountains 
are  called  passes.  The  chief  passes  of  the  Alps  have  been  known 
and  frequented  from  a  period  antecedent  to  authentic  history. 
The  famous  Pass  of  St.  Bernard,  the  Pass  of  St.  Gotthard,  and 
the  Simplon  Pass  may  be  represented  in  place.  The  Pyrenees 
and  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  with  the  Apennines  and  Balkans 
complete  the  main  system.  The  secondary  mountain  chains  of 
Europe  may  now  be  molded.  The  ranges  of  Scandinavia,  the 
Caucasus,  with  Mount  Elburz,  the  highest  peak  of  Europe  (18,526 
feet),  and  the  Urals  should  be  located.  The  latter  should  have  a 
very  broad  base,  since  the  slopes,  both  on  the  European  and  Asiatic 
sides,  are  so  gradual  that  the  traveller  looks  upon  the  elevations 
rather  as  pine-clad  heights  than  as  a  great  mountain  chain. 


Molding  Europe,  129 

The  British  Isles  form  part  of  the  great  continental  plain,  but 
are  separated  from  it  by  submarine  plains,  situated  in  the  North 
Sea,  300  feet  below  the  surface.  The  inconsiderable  elevations 
of  Scotland  and  Wales  may  be  shown  by  slight  ridges  in  relief. 

Some  of  the  snow-capped  peaks  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Scandi- 
navian Alps,  and  the  Caucasus  ranges  should  be  represented. 

Outline  the  rivers  in  pencil,  and  then  trace  over  in  blue  ink. 
The  snow-crowned  Alps  form  the  hydrographic  center  for  High 
Europe.  Even  in  the  hottest  and  driest  seasons  the  reserves, 
accumulated  in  the  form  of  glaciers  during  a  long  preceding 
period  of  years,  are  available  to  maintain  the  regular  flow  of  the 
greater  streams.  The  entire  system  of  the  Alps  is  drained  by 
four  large  rivers,  the  Rhone,  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Po. 
The  Danube,  rising  in  the  Black  Mountains,  follows  the  general 
eastward  slope,  and  passes,  through  transverse  gaps,  a  number  of 
ranges  lying  directly  across  its  course.  The  Rhine  and  the  Rhone 
pass  through  transverse  valleys  in  the  Swiss  Alps  and  the  Jura. 

The  center  for  Low  Europe  lies  in  the  Valdai  Hills,  from 
which  streams  radiate  in  every  direction.  These  streams  all  enter 
the  four  inland  seas  which  border  upon  the  great  European 
plain.  The  longest  river  of  Europe,  the  Volga,  flows  toward  that 
vast  depression  which  separates  Europe  from  Asia.  That  por- 
tion of  the  depression  which  is  below  the  sea  level  may  be  shown 
on  the  map  by  a  light  wash  of  a  greenish-yellow  color. 

Unless  the  map  be  made  upon  a  large  scale,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  represent  the  mountain  lakes  of  Europe.  The  lakes 
v/hich  are  found  in  the  lowlands  which  surround  the  Baltic  Sea 
should  be  shown.  These  are  lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega  in  Russia, 
and  Wener  and  Wetter  in  Sweden. 

Complete  the  map  by  placing  gold-foil  upon  the  peaks  repre- 
senting the  volcanoes  Etna,  Vesuvius,  Stromboli,  and  Vulcano ; 
also  Mount  Hecla  and  the  other  volcanoes  of  Iceland. 


I30  Modeling  in  Putty. 


PUTTY-MOLDING. 

Among  the  many  art  media  which  are  at  the  service  of  teach- 
ers of  geography  in  the  construction  of  reHef-maps,  common 
putty  occupies  no  insignificant  place.  This  material  is  pliable 
and  easily  manipulated,  therefore  teachers  and  pupils  possessing 
but  moderate  abilities  in  the  art  of  molding  can  readily  produce 
very  serviceable  relief-maps. 

In  order  to  get  the  best  results,  colored  putty  should  be  used. 
There  are  certain  conventional  tints  which  may  be  used  to  repre- 
sent the  various  natural  conditions  of  land  and  its  variations  of 
level.  The  teacher  who  intends  to  construct  serviceable  reHef- 
maps  should  procure  putty  in  the  following  colors,  which  any 
glazier  or  painter  will  readily  make : 

1.  Green. — The  color  known  as  "Nile  green,"  formed  by 
mixing  with  the  putty  a  little  Prussian  blue  and  chrome  yellow, 
making  a  light  tint. 

2.  Brown. — A  warm  shade  of  brown,  formed  by  mixing 
umber  and  Indian  red  with  the  putty. 

3.  Yellow. — A  tint  resembling  ''  Naples  yellow,*'  formed  by 
adding  yellow  ochre  to  the  putty. 

4.  Buff. — A  shade  formed  by  mixing  equal  quantities  of  (2) 
and  (3).     Raw  sienna  gives  nearly  the  same  color. 

In  a  relief-map  of  any  continent,  lowlands  and  valleys  may  be 
represented  in  green,  mountains  in  brown,  lakes  in  blue,  and 
deserts  in  buff.  '*  Naples  yellow  "  is  the  conventional  color  for 
plateaus,  but  in  most  cases  it  will  be  better  to  represent  both 
highlands  and  mountains  in  brown. 

Relief-maps  should  be  molded  upon  boards  specially  prepared 
for  the  purpose.  For  use  in  the  class-room  a  very  convenient 
form  may  be  made  by  nailing  strips  on  the  ends  of  short  lengths 
of  thin  pine  boards.     The  strips  prevent  warping.     The  molding- 


Fig.  6o. 
map  of  south  america  in  plain  putty. 


Modeling  in  Putty.  131 

boards  used  for  the  continents  may  be  13  by  16  inches.  Since 
the  map  is  intended  to  remain  upon  the  board,  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  work  may  be  much  improved  by  painting  the 
boards  Hght  blue.  The  continent  and  its  neighboring  islands  will 
then  stand  out  in  strong  relief.  Instead  of  the  thin  boards  here 
recommended,  squares  and  oblongs  of  book-board  may  be  used  ; 
but  the  putty  will  not  adhere  so  readily,  and  the  pieces  are  apt  to 
warp. 

If  a  set  of  relief-maps  of  the  continents  be  constructed,  it  will 
be  well  to  adopt  some  uniform  scale,  since  better  ideas  of  the  rel- 
ative sizes  can  thus  be  obtained.  With  the  boards  13  by  16,  a 
scale  of  400  miles  to  the  inch  may  be  employed.  The  following 
directions  are  such  as  may  be  found  useful  in  locating  the  main 
points  in  the  outline  of  South  America. 


South  America. 

Draw  a  vertical  line  AB,  and  make  it  i  \\  inches  long.  Meas- 
ure downward  3  inches  upon  this  line  to  the  point  Cy  through 
which  draw  the  horizontal  line  ED^  making  CE  2  inches  to  the 
left,  and  CD  6  inches  to  the  right.  Lay  off  on  AB  2  inches  from 
C  to  F.     Draw  the  lines  AE,  AD,  DB  and  EF, 

MOLDING  THE  MAP. 

Locate  upon  the  board  the  points  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F. 
Take  a  small  ball  of  green  putty  (No.  i)  about  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter and  soften  it  in  the  hand  until  thoroughly  pliable.  Place 
the  piece  of  putty  in  the  center  of  the  outline  and  press  it  out- 
ward to  the  points  marked.  Make  the  layer  of  green  perfectly 
flat  and  about  -^^  inch  thick.  Mold  in  the  shore-line  according  to 
the  outline  as  given  in  the  text-book,  using  a  pointed  stick  in 


132  Molding  South  America, 

making  the  indentation  of  the  coast.  Finish  the  flat  surface  by- 
passing the  palm  of  the  hand  Hghtly  over  the  whole. 

Some  teachers  may  prefer  to  %\y^  the  children  the  outline  of 
the  shore  and  let  them  mold  to  the  limit  thus  set.  In  that  case, 
a  good  plan  is  to  cut  out  a  pattern  in  thin  cardboard,  and  trace 
around  the  edge.  The  method  employed  may  be  varied  to  suit 
the  end  desired.  With  very  young  children  the  outline  must  be 
given  if  accurate  maps  are  desired  at  once. 

Whatever  be  the  method  employed,  it  is  probable  that  the 
production  of  the  map  of  the  continent  outlined  in  the  flat  will 
furnish  enough  work  for  each  member  of  the  class  during  one 
lesson-period. 

Pupils  should  be  questioned  in  regard  to  the  triangular  form 
of  the  continent,  and  the  coast-line  unbroken  by  great  gulfs  or 
large  enclosed  seas. 

Prepare  some  brown  putty  (No  2)  and  spread  it  out  in  thin 
patches  upon  the  parts  of  the  continent  where  the  plateau  sec- 
tions are  to  be  represented. 

These  sections  are  : 

1.  The  Plateau  of  the  Andes. 

2.  The  Plateau  of  Brazil. 

3.  The  Plateau  of  Guiana. 

Of  these  plateaus,  that  of  the  Andes  is  by  far  the  most  prom- 
inent. It  should  be  represented  on  the  map  by  an  irregular  band 
in  brown  varying  from  one-quarter  inch  to  one  inch  in  width,  and 
stretching  along  the  entire  western  coast. 

The  portion  of  the  map  left  green  will  represent  the  Great 
Central  Plain,  which,  extending  along  the  whole  eastern  base  of 
the  Andes,  is  interrupted  only  by  the  low  plateaus  of  Brazil  and 
Guiana. 

This  great  plain  is  usually  considered  under  three  divisions : 

I.  The  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco. 


\  ) 


K^^ 


Fig.  6i. 
map  of  australia  in  colored  puity 


Modeling  in  Putty.  133 

2,  The  Selvas  of  the  Amazon. 

3.  The  Pampas  of  the  La  Plata. 

The  watersheds  dividing  these  sections  are  insignificant. 

The  student  may  now  proceed  to  mold  the  mountains  of  the 
continent.  Roll  out  between  the  palms  of  the  hands  Httle  strips 
of  brown  putty,  and  place  them  in  parallel  lines  along  the 
western  coast  upon  the  Andean  plateau.  These  will  form  the 
border-walls  of  the  plateau,  and  should  be  molded  into  peaks  and 
elevations  by  means  of  a  horn  spatula  or  a  common  steel  button- 
hook. The  elevations  should  not  exceed  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  height.  The  system  should  be  formed  of  two  lines  of  eleva- 
tions in  the  central  portion,  of  three  lines  at  the  northern  ex- 
tremity, and  of  one  at  the  southern  extremity.  The  general 
chain  of  the  Andes  is  nowhere  broken  through,  and  thus  the 
great  mountain  system  forms  a  complete  separation  between  the 
waters  which  fall  into  the  Pacific  and  those  which  flow  in  the 
Atlantic. 

The  chief  peaks  of  the  Andes,  such  as  Illampu,  Aconcagua,  and 
Nevada  de  Sorata,  should  be  located,  and  may  be  marked  with 
little  touches  of  white  paint.  The  various  groups  of  lofty  volca- 
noes may  be  readily  distinguished  by  deftly  placing  small  pieces 
of  gold-foil  upon  the  tips  of  the  elevations  molded  to  represent 
them.  Thus  may  be  represented  the  volcano  Tolima,  and  the 
linear  groups  of  the  Plateau  of  Quito,  containing  Chimborazo  and 
Pichincha,  Cayambe,  and  the  famous  Cotopaxi,  the  highest  active 
volcano  in  the  world.  The  volcanoes  of  the  central  group,  Are- 
quipa  and  Sahama,  and  the  remarkable  Chihan  range,  including 
Antuco  and  Corcovado,  should  also  be  shown  upon  the  map. 

The  broad  tableland  of  Brazil  should  be  crossed  by  several 
irregular  ranges  of  low  mountains,  the  highest  ranges  situated 
along  the  southeastern  coast. 

The  mountains  of  Guiana,  consisting  of  the  Acarai  and  Paca- 


134  Molding  South  America, 

rayma  ranges,  may  be  represented  by  elevations  about  equal  in 
altitude  to  those  of  Brazil. 

The  next  lesson  may  consist  of  tracing  the  courses  of  the 
rivers  of  South  America.  If  the  students  can  be  supplied  with 
little  perforating  needles  such  as  are  used  in  the  kindergarten, 
these  may  be  used  in  marking  out  the  river-courses.  A  sharp 
penknife  may  be  used  instead. 

The  rivers  should  be  traced  from  source  to  mouth.  The  main 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon  should  be  shown  upon  the  map.  In  a 
complete  map  the  wonderful  little  river,  the  Cassiquiare,  which 
connects  the  Rio  Negro  of  the  Amazonian  system  with  the  Ori- 
noco, will  be  traced  in  position.  The  La  Plata  and  its  tributa- 
ries draining  the  pampas  of  the  South  should  be  shown. 

In  the  central  portion  of  the  plateau  section  of  the  Andes  a 
little  depression  may  be  lightly  touched  with  blue  paint  to  repre 
sent  Lake  Titicaca,  the  highest  large  lake  in  the  world. 

The  Desert  of  Atacama,  on  the  western  coast  of  the  continent, 
may  be  represented  by  a  small  patch  of  buff  putty.  The  shade 
may  be  formed  by  mixing  No.  2  and  No.  3. 

SUBDIVISION   OF  THE  WORK. 

Lesson  I. — Basal  lines  or  outline. 

Lesson  II. — Flat  layer  of  green,  with  shore-line. 

Lesson  III. — Plateaus  and  deserts. 

Lesson  IV. — Mountains  and  rivers. 

Lesson  V. — Lakes  and  details  of  finish. 

Putty  may  be  kept  very  soft  and  pliable  by  covering  it  with 
water.  When  it  is  needed  for  use  a  portion  may  be  placed  in 
hot  water,  and  it  will  then  become  exceedingly  soft,  but  not  adhe- 
sive or  disagreeable  in  any  way. 

Practice-boards,  consisting  of  plain  lengths  of  common 
pine,    may   be    used    until   some   little   skill   is   attained   in   the 


Modeling  in  Plaster.  135 

manipulation  of  the  putty.     Colored  putty  costs  about  ten  cents 
a  pound. 

By  following  the  directions  given  in  a  preceding  section  the 
other  continents  may  be  molded  in  colored  putty. 

MOLDING    IN    PLASTER   OF    PARIS. 

Plaster  is  not  a  medium  which  will  be  found  quite  so  useful 
for  general  purposes  as  some  other  media,  but  there  are  still 
many  cases  in  which  it  is  the  best  substance  to  employ.  Where 
it  is  desirable  to  make  many  copies  of  a  given  map,  and  the  mat- 
ter of  time  is  the  chief  element  to  be  considered,  or  where  it  is 
necessary  that  a  very  high  degree  of  finish  shall  be  given  to  the 
work,  then  it  becomes  the  medium  par  excellence.  The  best 
method  to  be  pursued  in  the  production  of  a  set  of  copies  of  a 
relief-model  is  as  follows  : 

Let  the  relief  to  be  copied  be  one  of  the  delicate  putty  maps, 
made  according  to  the  directions  given  under  the  heading  ''  Putty 
Molding."  Brush  lightly  the  whole  surface  of  the  map  with  a 
thin  coating  of  oil,  wax,  or  graphite.  Tack  a  rim  or  border  of 
thin  strips,  one  inch  deep,  completely  around  the  board  upon 
which  the  map  is  molded.  Prepare  the  thin  paste  of  plaster,  and 
pour  it  into  the  mold  thus  made.  Let  it  become  firm,  and  then 
remove  it  by  tapping  smartly  the  strips  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the 
board.  This  becomes  a  new  matrix  from  which  any  number  of 
copies  can  be  made.  Nail  some  inch  strips  together  to  form  a 
confining  frame  for  the  matrix.  Coat  the  matrix  with  oil  or 
graphite,  and  then  fill  with  plaster.  A  few  sharp  taps  will  allow 
the  removal  of  a  perfectly  clean  and  white  copy  of  the  original 
map.  This  may  now  be  elaborated  by  fine  work  upon  the  rivers, 
etc.,  and  may  be  made  to  take  any  of  the  delicate  tints  employed 
in  water-color  painting.     Where  it  is  desirable  to  make  maps  for 


136  Plaster  Casts. 

use  in  all  the  ward  schools  of  a  city  system,  many  of  these  clean, 
white  copies  may  be  made.  By  having  the  various  continents 
molded  in  different  schools,  fine  sets  of  rehef-maps  may  be  made 
for  use  in  all  the  schools  of  a  city. 

This  medium,  like  the  papier-mache,  has  the  great  advantage 
of  taking  water-colors  and  India  ink  well,  and  thus  readily  lends 
itself  to  the  highest  grade  of  work.  In  order  that  the  student 
and  teacher  may  be  able  to  avail  themselves  properly  of  this 
beautiful  medium,  we  give  the  following  list  of  desirable  colors 
to  be  used  in  tinting : 

China  white.  Yellow  ochre, 

Lemon  yellow,  Raw  sienna, 

Vermilion,  Venetian  red, 

Rose  madder,  Carmine, 

Burnt  sienna.  Raw  umber. 

Sepia,  Gamboge, 

Indigo,  Emerald  green, 

Prussian  blue,  India  ink. 

All  the  conventional  tints  employed  in  geographical  repre- 
sentation may  be  obtained  from  these,  and  their  use  will  add 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  maps  made.  Of  course  the  only 
limit  is  the  artistic  talent  of  the  molder. 

It  is  understood  that  the  maps  from  which  the  molds  are 
made  must  be  perfectly  dry  and  hard,  otherwise  the  matrices  can- 
not readily  be  made. 

MAPS   OF  FINEST   FINISH. 

A  simple  extension  of  the  processes  given  before  will  g\vQ  a 
method  for  production  of  rehef  maps  of  a  quality  not  surpassed 
in  this  country.  Let  a  plaster  mold  be  made  as  in  the  directions 
given,  and  into  this  pour  a  thin  layer  of  fine,  smooth  pulp,  con- 


Fig.  62. 
map  of  asia  in  plaster  of  paris. 


Paper  Casts,  137 

sistlng  of  macerated  paper.     This  may  then  be  backed  by  a  thick, 
coarser  pulp  made  of  manilla,  brown  paper,  etc. 

Another  process  which  gives  excellent  results  is  as  follows  : 
Soak  sheets  of  Whatman's  best  draughting  paper  in  a  size  of 
glue  and  paste.  Take  pieces  of  the  required  dimensions,  and, 
pasting  them  together  in  layers,  press  them  down  into  the  mold 
of  the  map.  Dry  these  layers  by  placing  the  mold  in  an  oven  ; 
then  back  the  layers  with  pulp,  or  with  plaster  of  Paris.  When 
it  is  desirable  to  finish  the  map  in  water-colors,  the  first  layer 
should  be  soaked  in  pure  water,  and  the  size  or  paste  be  applied 
to  one  side  only  and  after  the  sheet  has  been  laid  in  the  mold. 
Maps  made  in  this  way  become  very  strong  and  durable,  and  are 
capable  of  taking  very  high  finish. 

We  hope  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  maps  of  the  above 
description  will  be  made  in  great  numbers  in  our  own  country. 


ONE  USE  OF  RELIEF  MAPS. 

The  following  double  lesson  given  by  Mr.  Small,  a  pupil- 
teacher,  shows  one  use  which  may  be  made  of  the  relief-maps 
after  they  have  been  molded  by  the  pupils. 

Subject :    Cultivated  and  Uncultivated  Products  of  South 

America. 

Point. — I.  To  obtain  from  the  pupils  the  statements  given  in 
the  plan  below. 

2.  To  fix  firmly  in  their  minds  the  knowledge  gained. 

Preparation  by  Pupils. — i.  Study  of  the  text  in  a  good  Inter- 
mediate Geography. 

2.  A  little  well-directed  reading. 


138  Use  of  Relief  Maps, 

3.  Acquired  concepts  of  the  general  physical  features  of  the 
continent,  through  previous  work  and  molding  the  relief  in  putty, 
clay,  or  paper-pulp. 

4.  Individual  maps ;  each  pupil's  molded  work  before  him 
during  the  recitation. 

Preparation  by  the  Teacher. — i.  Selection  of  lesson-plan. 

2.  Consultation  of  Manual  of  Commerce. 

3.  Molding  of  individual  map. 

Plan  and  Matter. — i.  Review  of  previous  lesson  on  physical 
features. 

2.  Vegetable  products  are — cultivated  and  uncultivated. 

3.  Cabinet-woods,  dye-woods,  palms,  india-rubber,  cinchona- 
sarsaparilla,  Brazil  nuts,  and  cassava  are  the  principal  wild  pro- 
ductions of  South  America. 

4.  The  cabinet-woods, — mahogany,  rosewood,  ebony,  etc., — 
the  dye-woods,  india-rubber  and  palms,  are  mainly  found  along 
the  Amazon. 

5.  Cassava  is  produced  in  greatest  abundance  in  Brazil. 

6.  Cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark  is  obtained  in  Peru,  United 
States  of  Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Bolivia. 

7.  Coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  and  rice  are  the  prin- 
cipal cultivated  vegetable  productions  of  South  America. 

8.  Brazil  yields  more  than  half  the  coffee  used  in  the  world. 

9.  Brazil  is  the  chief  coffee,  sugar,  and  cotton  producing  dis- 
trict of  South  America,  but  Guiana  and  Venezuela  are  also  im- 
portant districts. 

10.  Venezuela  and  Brazil  produce  indigo. 

11.  General  drill  in  spelling,  etc. 

METHOD. 

Teacher. — Who  can  tell  me  upon  what  the  vegetable  productions  of  a 
country  depend  ? 

Harry. — Upon  the  soil  and  climate. 


A  Model  Lesson,  139 

Teacher. — Since  the  soil  and  climate,  as  you  have  learned,  differ  much 
in  the  various  countries,  what  must  follow  in  regard  to  the  productions  ? 

Bertha. — The  productions  are  different. 

Teacher. — In  your  last  lesson  you  have  molded  South  America.  Etta 
may  tell  me  to  which  hemisphere  the  continent  belongs. 

Etta.—'SiOViXh.  America  lies  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

Teacher. — In  what  zones  does  the  continent  lie,  Charlie? 

Charlie. — It  is  in  the  Torrid  and  South  Temperate  Zones. 

Teacher. — Through  what  part  does  the  equator  pass,  Gracie  ? 

Grade. — Through  the  northern  part. 

Teacher. — What  portion  of  the  continent  is  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  Helen  } 

Helen. — About  three-quarters  of  the  continent  lie  in  the  Torrid  Zone. 

Teacher. — Class  may  show  me  where  the  equator  crosses  the  continent. 

Each  pupil  points  out  the  place  upon  his  map. 

Teacher. — Where  is  the  chief  mountain  system  situated,  Ella  ? 
Ella. — It  extends  along  the  entire  Western  coast. 

Here  the  teacher  conducts  a  rapid  review  of  the  previous  les- 
son upon  physical  features,  climate,  soil,  etc.  The  pupils  locate 
the  various  parts  named.  Much  of  the  zest  of  recitation  appears 
to  come  from  the  fact  that  each  child  is  dealing  with  a  map  which 
he  has  made  his  own. 

Teacher. — Since  the  greater  part  of  South  America  is  in  the  Torrid  Zone, 
what  kind  of  productions  should  we  expect  to  find,  Lottie  } 

Lottie. — The  productions  common  to  the  Torrid  Zone,  mainly. 

Teacher. — What  two  general  classes  of  vegetable  productions  do  we 
have,  Edna? 

Edna. — Cultivated  and  uncultivated. 

Teacher. — Name  some  cultivated  products,  Harry? 

Harry. — Corn  and  wheat. 

Teacher. — Helen  may  name  some  uncultivated  prodnjctions  we  have  in 
this  country. 

Helen. — The  timber-trees. 

Teacher. — Who  can  name  some  uncultivated  vegetable  products  of 
South  America  ? 


I40  Suggestive  Work, 

^//^.—Cabinet-woods. 
Teacher. — What  are  cabinet-woods? 
Etta. — Wood  used  in  making  fine  furniture. 
Teacher. — Clara  may  name  some. 

Clara. — Mahogany  and  rosewood.      Chairs   and   sofas   are   sometimes 
made  of  mahogany,  and  pianos  of  rosewood. 
Teacher. — Harry  } 
Harry. — Sister  has  an  easel  made  of  satinwood  and  ebony. 

The  children  are  asked  to  spell  these  various  words,  and  the 
teacher  writes  a  list  upon  the  blackboard. 

Teacher. — Name  other  uncultivated  products  of  South  America,  Edna  } 

Edna. — Dye-woods. 

Grade. — Cocoanuts  and  other  fruits  of  palms. 

Ella. — India-rubber. 

Teacher. — What  is  india-rubber,  Helen. 

Hele?i. — India-rubber  is  a  gum-like  or  resinous  substance  obtained  from 
the  milky  sap  of  a  tree. 

Teacher. — What  use  is  made  of  it  in  this  country,  Charles  ? 

Charles. — It  is  used  in  making  boots,  shoes,  water-proof  clothing,  erasers, 
and  many  other  articles. 

Teacher. — There  is  also  a  tree  called  cow  tree  or  milk  tree,  which  yieds 
an  abundance  of  nutritious  sap.  From  what  are  all  of  these  various  things 
obtained,  Gracie  } 

Grade. — They  are  obtained  from  trees. 

Teacher. — Where  do  we  always  find  trees,  Mac  ? 

Mac. — In  forests. 

Teacher. — Where  do  we  find  the  principal  forests  of  South  America 
Lottie  ? 

Lottie. — In  the  plains  of  the  Amazon. 

Teacher. — Lawrence  may  tell  us  the  name  which  is  sometimes  given  to 
these  plains. 

Lazurence.  — Sel  vas. 

Teacher. — What  does  that  word  mean,  Mac  } 

Mac. — Woods  or  forest  plains. 

Teacher. — Where  are  the  dye-woods,  cabinet-woods,  india-rubber  trees, 
cow  trees  and  palm  trees  of  South  America  found,  Edna  ? 

Edna. — In  the  forests  along  the  banks  of  the  Amazon,  in  Brazil, 


A  Model  Lesson.  141 

Teacher. — Class  may  point  out  on  maps.  Yes,  that  is  right.  But  have 
we  named  all  the  wild  products,  Harry  ? 

Harry. — I  can  name  two  others — Peruvian  bark  and  sarsaparilla. 

Teacher. — Any  others,  Charles  ? 

Charles. — Cassava  or  tapioca. 

Heleji, — Brazil  nuts. 

Teacher. — In  what  zone  is  cassava  produced  ? 

Grade. — In  the  Torrid  Zone. 

Teacher. — In  what  particular  country  of  South  America  is  it  produced, 
Harry  ? 

Harry. — In  Brazil. 

Teacher. — Class  may  point  out  the  country.  Yes,  that  is  right,  Charles. 
Now  we  have  all  found  it.  What  is  the  name  of  the  plant  from  which 
cassava  is  made  } 

Helen. — It  is  called  the  manioc  shrub,  and  the  root  when  scraped  to  a 
pulp  is  pressed  and  dried,  and  then  ground  to  flour  called  cassava.  The 
starch  of  the  roots  is  known  as  the  tapioca  of  commerce. 

Teacher. — The  manufacture  of  the  manioc-flour  and  tapioca  is  one  of 
the  leading  industries  of  the  country.  Much  tapioca  is  now  produced  from 
the  planted  shrubs,  so  we  cannot  call  this  strictly  an  uncultivated  product. 
Where  is  cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark  found,  Bertha.? 

Bertha.  — ll  is  found  in  Peru.     (Maps.) 

Teacher. — Well,  Helen  ? 

Helen. — It  is  found,  too,  in  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and  United  States  of 
Colombia. 

Teacher. — In  what  plateau  are  all  of  these  countries  which  produce  this 
bar    ? 

Helen. — The  plateau  of  the  Andes. 

Teacher. — In  which  half  of  the  section,  Charles  ? 

Charles. — The  northern  half  of  the  Andean  plateau. 

Teacher. — Of  what  use  is  this  bark,  Ella  ? 

Ella. — It  is  used  as  medicine.  Quinine  is  made  from  cinchona  or  Peru- 
vian bark. 

Teacher. — What  other  medicinal  plant  did  Harry  name,  Helen.? 

Helen. — Sarsaparilla. 

Teacher. — Where  in  South  America  does  sarsaparilla  grow  } 

Helen. — In  Venezuela,  United  States  of  Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Peru. 
(Maps  used.j 


142  Products  of  South  America. 

Teachc7\ — What  kind  of  vegetable  products  are  these  which  we  have 
named  ? 

Class. — Uncultivated. 

Teacher. — These  may  all  be  included  in  the  term  forest  products.  Let 
us  name  them. 

C/a^^.— (Reading  from  the  blackboard.) 

Cabinet  woods, 
Dye  woods, 
Fruits  of  palms, 
India-rubber, 
Peruvian  bark, 
Sarsaparilla, 
Brazil  nuts. 
Cassava,  etc. 

Teacher. — What  other  kind  of  vegetable  products  are  there,  Etta  ? 
Etta. — Cultivated  products. 

Teacher. — Name  the  principal  cultivated  vegetable  productions  of  South 
America  ? 

Grade. — Coffee,  sugar,  and  cotton. 
Harry. — Tobacco  and  indigo. 
Lottie. — Bananas. 
Teacher. — Spell  that  word,  Lottie. 

Children  are  required  to  give  descriptions  of  the  various 
products  named.     The  words  are  written  upon  the  board. 

Teacher. — What  must  be  the  nature  of  the  climate  and  soil  in  these 
places  where  coffee,  sugar,  and  cotton  grow,  Edna  ? 

Edna. — The  climate  must  be  warm  and  moist,  and  the  soil  rich. 

Teacher. — What  countries  of  South  America  have  such  conditions, 
Bertha  ? 

Bertha. — Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Venezuela,  principally.     (Maps.) 

Teacher. — Then  these  products  are  found  in  what  countries,  Harry  r 

Harry. — They  are  all  found  in  greatest  abundance  in  Brazil,  but  Guiana 
produces  large  quantities  of  cotton  and  sugar,  while  Venezuela  produces 
superior  grades  of  sugar  and  coffee. 

Teacher. — How  does  Brazil  rank  with  other  countries  in  the  production 
of  coffee,  Ella? 


Chalk  Modeling.  143 

Ella. — Brazil  yields  more  than  half  of  the  coffee  consumed  in  the  world, 
and  the  United  States  takes  fully  one-half  of  the  quantity  exported. 

Teacher. — In  what  zone  does  the  indigo  plant  flourish,  Mac? 

Mac. — In  the  Torrid  Zone. 

Teacher. — We  shall  then  find  this  plant  in  the  northern  part  of  South 
America,  but  in  what  countries,  Etta.'* 

Etta. — In  Venezuela  and  Brazil. 

Teacher. — Class  may  name  the  cultivated  vegetable  products. 

Class. — (Reading  from  the  blackboard.) 

Coffee, 

Sugar, 

Cotton, 

Tobacco, 

Indigo, 

Bananas, 

Rice, 

Cocoa,  etc. 

General  Drill. — Pupils  name,  spell,  describe,  and  point  out  on 
relief-maps  the  various  localities  in  which  the  productions  are 
found. 


CHALK-MODELING  AND   MAP-DRAWING. 

Map-drawing  is  now  generally  recognized  as  an  important 
auxiliary  in  the  study  of  geography;  but  many  teachers  make 
the  mistake  of  regarding  it  as  an  end^  and  not  as  a  means.  Cartog- 
raphy, or  the  production  of  finished  and  mathematically  accu- 
rate maps,  is  work  for  engineers  and  topographers,  not  for 
students  in  our  public  schools  ;  and  while  we  will  yield  to  none  in 
our  appreciation  of  beautiful  work  of  this  kind,  still  it  is  beHeved 
that  the  acquisition  of  the  habit  of  close  observation,  and  the 
attainment  of  skill  in  representation  are  of  far  greater  importance 
than  the  mere  production  of  maps  possessing  artistic  finish. 

A  gentleman  once  told  us  that  one  thing  which  struck  him  as 


144  Map  Drawing. 

particularly  noticeable  in  the  school-life  in  Japan,  was  the  power 
the  little  boys  possessed  of  representing  by  a  few  rapidly-drawn 
lines  the  object  to  which  they  wished  to  direct  attention.  Draw- 
ing was  with  them  a  second  language.  Now  it  is  psychologically 
true  that  drawing  is  a  means  of  concept  expression  : — a  language 
by  means  of  which  we  may  express  sight  impressions.  It  is  in 
its  practical  application  of  this  truth  that  the  German  method  of 
teaching  geography  trends  in  the  right  direction.  The  rough 
diagram  or  sketch  In  which  the  German  lad  seeks  to  express  his 
concept  of  the  relative  shape  and  outline  of  the  Americas,  may 
be  crude  indeed,  yet  the  simple  sketch  fascinates  us — interprets 
to  us  something  which  we  may  never  have  grasped  before.  How 
often  the  elaborate  work,  full  of  the  most  marvelous  detail,  only 
excites  our  wonder  !     It  tells  us  nothing  ;  it  teaches  nothing. 

We  are  all  inclined  to  flatter  ourselves  by  imagining  that  we 
know  more  than  we  can  express,  but  the  truth  is  that  we  can 
only  draw  or  represent  so  much  of  a  thing  as  we  can  see^  or  in 
other  words,  so  much  as  we  can  realize. 

It  follows  from  this,  that  we  can  expect  little  good  from  any 
system  of  map-drawing  in  which  tracing  dim  outlines  occupies  any 
considerable  part,  if,  at  the  same  time,  much  original  work  be 
not  done  on  such  maps.  The  pupils  should  often  be  required  to 
produce  maps  without  the  aid  of  either  outHne  or  construction 
lines.  Even  the  production  of  what  some  one  has  sneeringly 
called  "  nondescripts  "  will  go  far  to  show  to  the  teacher  what 
actual  concepts  the  children  have  of  the  form  of  the  continent 
which  they  have  been  studying. 

The  early  sketch-maps  may  be,  probably  will  be,  in  their 
honest  hardness  of  outline,  far  less  pretty  than  those  of  more 
pretentious  ignorance ;  but  while  those  who  have  never  learned 
the  alphabet  of  the  true  art  of  map-making  can  make  no  prog- 
ress, those  who  base  their  work   upon   a   sound  foundation  will 


Chalk  Modeling, 


145 


find  that  every  sketch-map  they  make  is  an  education  of  hand 
and  eye  and  brain. 

Let  any  teacher  study  the  plan  which  he  will  himself  adopt 


Fig.  63. 

when  tracing  any  outline,  and  then  find  whether  he  has  by  the 
process  obtained  any  concept  of  the  form  of  the  whole.  In  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  it  will  be  found  that  the  effort  to  concentrate 


H^  Map  Sketching, 

the  mind  upon  the  detail  focuses  the  eye  upon  a  very  limited 
portion  of  the  outline,  and  prevents  the  retention  of  any  con- 
cept of  the  entire  form. 

"■  Sketch  the  tree  first  as  a  whole,"  said  a  famous  artist  to 
his  pupils,  *'  do  not  try  to  grow  a  trunk  onto  the  branches."  How 
often  children  are  required  to  work  at  the  leaves  and  branches  of 
continents  before  studying  and  drawing  the  trunk-forms  ! 

With  young  pupils,  the  power  to  imitate  should  mainly  be 
relied  upon  in  the  work.  If  it  be  possible,  send  them  all  to  the 
blackboard,  and  have  them  block  in,  with  the  flat  side  of  the 
crayon,  the  mass  of  the  continent.  But  you  say,  "  The  work 
looks  so  rough,  so  crude."  Yes,  the  first  attempts  may  be  poor ; 
but  improvement  soon  begins,  and  the  end  shows  that  the  plan  is 
a  correct  one.  The  difficulty  here,  as  in  all  kinds  of  real  wo'rk, 
lies  in  the  trouble  of  thinking,  to  escape  which  we  sometimes 
catch  at  the  most  laborious  trifling.  When  the  child  looks  at  a 
form  in  order  to  draw  it,  there  is  a  strong  act  of  the  will,  and 
this  causes  true  growth  of  the  mind.  This  form  of  drawing  or 
chalk-modeling  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  aids  in  the  teaching 
of  geography.  In  the  hands  of  skillful  pupils  and  teachers  it  be- 
comes a  source  of  never-ending  delight. 

Modeling  the  continent  in  sand  should  precede  the  drawing 
of  the  form,  and  it  would  be  well  if  the  representation  of  the  sur- 
face in  color  could  also  precede  drawing.  Where  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  employ  water-colors  in  the  representation  of  the  con- 
tinental masses,  colored  crayons  may  be  used  with  good  effect. 
From  the  modeled  continent  as  formed  upon  the  molding-board 
the  continent  as  a  mass  should  be  drawn  in  green  chalk ;  next 
the  plateaus  and  mountains  in  brown  or  yellow ;  then  the  rivers 
in  bright  blue.  When  mountains  occur  upon  the  map,  they 
should  be  drawn  before  the  rivers,  except  in  case  the  rivers  form 
a  part  of  the  the  boundary  line.    The  mountains  at  once  give  the 


Construction  Lines,  147 

direction  in  which  the  land  slopes,  and  therefore  show  the  courses 
in  which  the  rivers  flow.  In  drawing  a  river,  the  line  should  be 
drawn  from  the  source  to  the  mouth.  A  child  will  very  soon 
understand  that  it  is  only  reasonable  to  trace  a  river  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  it  really  flows. 

It  is  believed  that  with  more  advanced  pupils  the  original 
development  of  the  outlines  of  the  continents  by  means  of  accu- 
rate construction  lines  may  be  made  interesting,  and  the  energy 
expended  not  be  lost.  The  system  is  as  old  as  the  time  of  Ritter, 
and  has  the  sanction  of  that  great  geographer.  If  the  measure- 
ments be  given  in  inches  and  the  work  done  to  scale,  much  skill 
of  a  practical  value  will  be  gained.  Pupils  take  pride  in  making 
good  maps,  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  they  take  little 
delight  where  learning  is  not  doing. 

Cartography  in  its  higher  forms  does  not  belong  to  our  school- 
rooms ;  still  there  is  one  use  which  may  be  made  of  any  good 
system  of  construction  lines,  aside  from  their  use  for  purposes  of 
map-drawing:  pupils  in  the  higher  classes  may  easily  calculate 
the  areas  of  the  continents  from  such  lines. 

Besides  the  maps  which  are  usually  made  in  our  schools, 
maps  should  be  made  showing  the  rain-belts,  forest  regions, 
deserts,  plains,  plateaus,  staple  products,  races  of  men,  density  of 
population,  religions,  ancient  empires,  manufacturing  interests, 
commercial  lines  of  travel,  sections  visited  by  noted  discoverers 
and  explorers,  territory  after  conquest,  colonization,  etc. 

In  many  schools,  especially  in  the  rural  districts,  there  are  no 
opportunities  for  teaching  the  productions  of  a  country  as  shown 
in  the  lessons  on  the  Progressive  Sand  Map.  In  such  cases  a 
passable  substitute  may  be  made  thus  :  Let  an  outline  of  the 
country  to  be  studied  be  drawn  upon  a  large  sheet  of  manilla 
paper.  The  lines  of  the  coast  may  be  made  most  effective  by 
shading  in  blue.     Now  paste  upon  the  map  the  products  of  the 


148  Product  Maps. 

country  In  their  proper  localities.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  rice, 
wool,  cotton,  iron-ore,  gold  and  silver  leaf,  cabinet  woods,  coffee- 
beans,  etc.,  may  all  be  easily  fastened  to  the  paper  with  glue.  If 
the  pupils  are  asked  to  bring  the  various  products,  there  will  be 
no  difficulty  through  lack  of  quantity.  Such  product-maps  give 
freshness  and  variety  even  in  schools  where  the  molding-board  is 
in  daily  use.  The  same  method  may  be  pursued  in  the  produc- 
tion of  botanical  charts  of  a  district,  county,  or  state. 

The  following  method,  suggested  by  a  correspondent  for  one 
of  our  educational  papers,  gives  a  splendid  opportunity  for  drill 
upon  map-sketching  as  well  as  a  good  change  from  routine 
work  for  both  teachers  and  pupils. 

Let  one  of  the  pupils  be  sent  to  the  board  to  draw  an  outline 
map  of  a  country,  and  let  the  others  at  their  seats  draw  upon 
slates  or  upon  paper. 

Allow  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  for  the  drawing  of  the  map, 
and  as  many  more  for  the  study  of  the  same. 

Now  let  one  of  the  pupils  stand  at  the  board  and  question  the 
class  upon  the  various  features  of  the  country,  making  use  mean- 
while of  the  map  drawn.  When  one  pupil  has  exhausted  his 
stock  of  ready  questions,  let  other  members  of  the  class  continue 
the  questioning. 

The  teacher  must  see  that  the  pupils  bring  out  the  leading 
features  by  their  questions,  and  should  supply  any  omitted  points. 

The  method  is  of  great  value,  since  pupils  are  led  to  inde- 
pendent study.  Never  were  words  more  true  than  these  of 
Rousseau  :  "  If  your  head  always  directs  your  pupil's  hands,  his 
own  head  will  become  useless  to  him." 


The  Eye  and  the  Hand,  149 


ILLUSTRATIVE   SKETCHING. 

Teachers  will  find  that  their  work  in  the  class-room  will  be 
rendered  more  effective  if  they  will  cultivate  a  taste  for  light 
sketching,  in  order  that  they  may  thereby  acquire  the  power  to 
illustrate  their  work  at  any  moment.  If  we  study  a  picture  care- 
fully, we  shall  find  that  the  principal  points  are  all  brought  out 
by  a  few  strong  Hnes.  Teachers  should  strive  to  gain  that  power 
of  the  eye  which  will  enable  them  to  seize  upon  these  main  points 
of  a  picture,  and  then  by  constant  practice  acquire  that  control 
of  hand  which  will  enable  them  to  represent  the  thing  desired. 

Some  teachers  may  think  that  this  is  a  sort  of  Egyptian 
tyranny,  to  bid  them  make  bricks,  having  not  yet  any  of  the 
materials.  But  let  us  look  at  the  matter.  Have  we  not  failed  in 
duty  in  denying  the  soul  some  of  its  possibilities  of  development 
by  neglecting  to  train  the  sense  of  sight  ?  We  do  not  cultivate 
this  sense,  which  is  by  no  means  naturally  strong  with  the  Eng- 
lish race.  Through  our  belief  that  we  can  do  nothing  in  this 
line,  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  we  are  thereby  relieved 
of  all  responsibility  for  the  cultivation  and  the  training  of  the 
hand  and  eye  in  others. 

Elementary  training  in  sketch-drawing  should  be  a  part  of 
the  course  in  every  school  in  which  teachers  are  prepared  for 
their  work.  The  line  of  work  should  be  specially  directed  towards 
the  attainment  of  genuine  control  of  the  hand.  The  direction  of 
the  classes  in  sketching  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  per- 
sons possessing  artistic  skill. 

But  those  teachers  who  have  had  no  chances  to  obtain  good 
training  may  do  much  to  improve  themselves  in  this  respect,  if 
they  will  but  think  so,  and  try.  Make  a  bold  stroke  to  emanci- 
pate yourselves  from  the  slavery  of  the  belief  that  you  can  do 


I50  Seeing  and  Doing. 

nothing.  At  first  your  attempts  will  be  crude  and  poor — very 
poor,  perhaps— but  the  next  time  that  you  try  you  will  do  better. 
Soon  you  will  begin  to  take  pride  in  your  work,  and  the  ready 
interest  excited  in  the  children  will  be  your  stimulus.  Never 
mind  if  occasionally  they  do  become  your  critics,  and  mistake 
your  horse  for  a  cow,  or  the  cat  for  a  sheep.  Perhaps  you  will 
find  that  the  fault  may  lie  in  the  fact  that  you  have  not  suffi- 
ciently emphasized  the  characteristic  points  of  the  animal  ;  and 
this,  because  your  own  percepts  and  concepts  may  not  be  so  clear 
as  you  may  have  supposed. 

A  very  common  fault  v/ith  beginners,  and  one  which  it  will 
be  well  to  guard  against  carefully,  is  false  finish — labor  thrown 
away  by  the  employment  of  methods  which  take  more  time  than 
other  methods,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  result  may  be  much 
inferior.  For  example,  fine  lines  and  cross-hatching  should  not 
be  employed  in  shading  in  cases  where  chalk,  charcoal,  or  the 
stump  will  give  a  shade  of  better  quality  in  less  time. 

Economy  in  labor,  wherever  it  is  not  artistically  an  evil,  should 
be  observed.  Get  a  few  sketches  by  good  artists,  and  notice  how 
in  their  work  these  men  give  rapidity  of  execution,  not  by  hurry- 
ing the  hand,  but  by  adopting  the  most  summary  means  of  ex- 
pression. The  natural  world  presents  itself  to  the  eye  as  a 
series  of  patches  or  spaces  full  of  gradations  of  light  and  shade 
and  color,  but  having  no  real  lines. 

Not  that  the  teacher  will  not  find  it  useful  at  times  to  use  that 
purity  and  firmness  of  outline  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the  best 
Greek  art,  Avhile  at  the  same  time  it  is  the  style  which  a  child 
naturally  adopts  in  his  own  first  efforts  ;  but  in  making  sketches, 
in  general,  the  teacher  should  aim  to  see  and  represent  the  large 
masses  of  light  and  shade,  and  thus  to  convey  impressions  and 
ideas  rapidly  and  accurately. 


Illustrative  Sketching. 


151 


Fig.  64.— The  Geyser, 


152  Historical  Maps. 


MAP  MODELING  IN   HISTORY. 

Map  modeling  in  connection  with  the  work  in  history  has 
considerable  educational  value,  since  everything  that  tends  to 
make  clear  the  geographical  relation  between  various  nations 
will  aid  in  the  understanding  of  their  history.  The  most  natural 
association  is  that  ot  time  and  place,  and  all  the  points  that  tend 
to  fix  the  place  in  memory  will  tend  to  impress  the  time  relation 
in  a  corresponding  degree.  The  imagination  is  of  course  the 
faculty  to  which  the  strongest  appeals  must  be  made  ;  but  as  we 
model  the  coast-line  of  Greece  in  our  study  of  the  history  of  that 
country,  we  shall  find  that  the  peculiar  charm  of  an  intimate 
blending  of  land  and  sea  could  not  fail  to  make  navigators  of  the 
Greeks.  It  incited  them  to  active  commercial  intercourse  with 
other  nations.  The  connection  between  the  physical  character 
of  a  country  and  the  history  of  its  people  is  most  intimate. 

As  we  take  up  the  individual  events  of  history,  an  accurate 
knowledge  and  expression  of  the  physical  features  becomes  a 
v»ry  important  part  in  the  thorough  study  of  causes  and  effects. 
No  teacher  who  has  ever  used  the  molding-board  in  the  course 
of  a  lesson  in  history  will  ever  return  to  that  senseless  memoriz- 
ing and  repeating  of  meaningless  words  so  long  forming  the  bulk 
of  this  work  in  our  common  schools. 

Take,  for  example,  the  early  history  of  the  Western  part  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  long  parallel  ridges  of  the  Alleghanies  seemed, 
like  huge  fences,  to  confine  the  English  people  to  the  country 
east  of  the  mountains.  The  pasture  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
mountains  was  not,  however,  to  be  the  limit.  In  1754  the  gov- 
ernor  of   Virginia  sent  Washington    to  take  possession  of   the 


fT: 


III  "P"  .'III  II   II  fill 


^-?^ 


■^^  ^'^^t^ 


r^ 


ii-:  i 


^  r  - 


a: 


ST'niW;^- 


'ep'\ 


,^Hy 


Fi(.  65.  ,:^ 

PAPIER-MACHE   MAP   OF    BURGOYNE'S   INVASION. 


Saratoga  and  Gettysburg.  153 

country,  and  the  young  major  selected  a  spot  where  the  Alle- 
ghany and  Monongahela  rivers  unite  to  form  the  Ohio.  As  the 
teacher  molds  these  valleys  meeting  at  the  point  at  which  the 
great  city  of  Pittsburgh  now  is  found,  the  power  of  its  position 
will  be  seen  more  clearly.  Fort  Duquesne  was  the  seal  that  the 
French  placed  to  confirm  the  wisdom  of  Washington. 

In  the  study  of  the  various  battlefields  mentioned  in  the  his- 
tory of  our  country  the  teacher  may  use  the  molding-board  with 
excellent  effect.  Bunker  Hill,  Saratoga,  and  many  others  are 
examples  of  those  that  are  best  adapted  to  such  representation. 
The  whole  campaign  of  Burgoyne's  invasion  is  the  subject  of  the 
papier-mache  map.  Fig.  65,  modeled  by  Wood  Bishop  of  the 
public  schools  of  Wilmerding,  Pa.  Fig.  66  shows  the  further  ap- 
plication of  the  same  idea,  although  it  is  impossible  to  reproduce 
in  the  photograph  the  colored  inks  used  in  the  marking  of  the 
various  details  of  the  map. 

The  great  battlefield  of  Gettysburg  may  be  modeled  and  the 
advantage  of  the  selection  of  the  terrible  fishhook  "position"  of 
Cemetery  Hill  be  made  plain.  During  Wednesday  night  and 
Thursday  morning  the  two  armies  were  concentrating  on  the 
two  ridges  which  were  to  be  the  line  of  battle.  Then  began  the 
great  artillery  contest.  The  cannonade  was  fierce  and  incessant, 
and  many  shells  were  thrown  into  the  town.  Both  sides  fought 
with  great  bravery,  but  neither  could  drive  the  other  out  of  posi- 
tion. On  Friday  morning  General  Lee  did  not  desire  to  make 
the  attack.  He  saw  the  superiority  of  the  federal  position,  and 
tried  to  entice  the  Union  troops  out  of  it  and  down  into  the  val- 
ley. The  confederates  marched  out  of  Gettysburg  and  retired  to 
the  seminary,  but  gained  nothing  by  the  movement.  All  day  the 
battle  raged  v/ith  great  fierceness  in  charge  and  countercharge. 
At  last  about  four  o'clock  occurred  the  sanguinary  struggle  that 
Whitelaw  Reid  has  called  the  great  final  charge.     In  this  great 


154  Historical  Maps, 

onward  rush  the  High-water  Mark  of  the  rebellion  was  reached. 
Pickett's  division  lost  six-sevenths  of  its  officers  and  men  ;  while 
the  federals  under  Gibbon,  their  strength  diminished  one-half, 
still  held  the  crest.  The  confederates  gathered  up  their  broken 
fragments,  formed  lines,  and  slowly  marched  away.  It  was  not 
a  rout,  but  a  bitter,  crushing  defeat.     Fig.  66a. 

Although  no  model  can  take  the  place  of  the  idealizing  forces 
of  a  vivid  imagination,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  value  of  the 
representation  of  the  relief  forms  in  this  relation.  Lookout 
Mountain,  Missionary  Ridge,  and  the  Shenandoah  Valley — that 
"■  Valley  of  Death  " — may  become  more  than  mere  names  if  their 
relief  forms  are  properly  understood. 


<Uitf^f 


C-.C.B 


I: 


%. 


V^ 


/        / 


4--^*- 


'•^ '  «»v. 


J'/ 
i     \ 


S    ,      <^»>e>ie.«?s;?) 


Fig.  66. 


Home  Geography. 


155 


lejsjsonis  ixi  f  ome  cefeosmpi^r. 


Fig.  67. 

Ursson  K. 

The  Spring  in  the  Pasture. 

These  lessons  in  Home  Geography  are  taken  from  '*  Home, 
ReHef,  and  Life,"  a  series  of  geographical  studies  copyrighted  by 
the  author  in  1892.  They  are  here  inserted  in  order  to  suggest 
lines  of  similar  work  to  teachers  who  may  use  the  preceding  les- 
sons in  map  modeHng.  All  work  of  this  kind  must  have  its  own 
local  coloring,  and  can  be  useful  in  transcription  only  as  it  is 
made  the  means  whereby  the  teacher  makes  the  brooks  and 
mountains  speak  to  the  children. 

Guyot  says  that  in  teaching  geography  the  child  must  first  be 


156  Home  Geography. 

made  acquainted  with  nature  as  it  exists  under  conditions  of  sur- 
face, climate,  and  culture  ;  he  must  know  the  thing  to  be  symbol- 
ized, before  the  symbol  can  have  any  definite  value.  Oral  lessons 
on  the  home  neighborhood  must  be  given,  that  the  children  may 
become  conscious  that  they  possess  knowledge  acquired  through 
their  own  powers  of  observation,  and  may  use  these  concepts, 
obtained  from  the  geography  of  their  own  locality,  in  building 
up  images  of  more  remote  regions.  A  child  has  taken  his  first 
steps  in  geographical  study  when  he  has  made  a  careful  study 
of  a  small  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  has  made  a  map  of 
the  school-ground. 

In  giving  such  primary  notions  of  this  great  study,  which  Rit- 
ter  calls  "a  great  school  of  culture  for  the  human  race,"  the  teach- 
ers in  our  country  schools  possess  natural  advantage  over  those  less 
fortunately  located  in  cities.  Still,  there  are  many  objects  access- 
ible in  the  least  varied  neighborhood,  and  these  may  be  made  the 
basis  for  future  ideas  of  rivers,  lakes,  plains,  and  mountains. 

A  child's  penetration  is  keener,  and  his  judgment  fairer,  than 
most  teachers  imagine.  Although  his  knowledge  is  limited,  he 
may  be  led  to  make  inquiry  into  much  that  is  useful  if  he  but 
come  under  the  instruction  of  the  skillful  teacher.  I  would  have 
every  teacher  draw ;  if  but  the  rudest  sketches,  draw.  The  les- 
son may  be  given  thus  : 

I  saw  Jennie  coming  through  the  pasture  on  her  way  to 
school.     What  is  a  pasture,  Johnny? 

"  A  place  where  sheep,  or  horses,  or  cows  stay."  Yes,  but 
why  do  we  keep  them  in  the  pasture  ?  ''  To  eat  the  grass."  But 
do  the  animals  need  anything  besides  grass  ?  "■  They  want  water, 
too."  Where  can  they  find  that,  James  ?  ''  There  is  a  brook  in 
our  pasture."  (Hands  rise.)  Carrie.  *^  There  is  a  big  spring  in 
our  pasture,  and  the  water  comes  right  out  of  the  hill." 


*-*X^M^,^'     >>    -^H^-^iT,. 


Fig.  66a. — map  of  battle  of  Gettysburg. 


IVater  Forms. 


157 


What  is  a  spring,  Carrie?  "A  place  where  the  water  comes 
out  of  the  ground."  "A  brook  flows  from  our  spring."  And 
James  says  there  is  a  brook  in  his  father's  pasture.  "  That's  the 
very  same  brook." 

How  does  a  brook  differ  from  a  spring?  "A  brook  is  water 
flowing  through  the  fields,  and  a  spring  is  water  coming  out  of 
the  ground."  That  is  good.  Now,  children,  let  us  make  a  little 
picture  of  the  spring  and  the  brook.  Right  here  at  the  bottom 
of  the  hilly  ground,  just  as  Carrie  says,  the  water  comes  out  of 
the  hill.  Do  you  see  the  spring?  (Sketches  rapidly;  Fig.  67.) 
Here  the  land  slopes  down  to  .  , 
the  spring.     Henry,  did  you  \\L 


ever  see  a 
and  it  was 
mosses   and 


spring?      "Yes, 

a  big   one    with 

ferns    and    tall 


^^ 


grass  near   it."     Good.     See  Fig.  68. 

the  grass  and  the  ferns.     It  is  near  the  fence.     So  the  same  water 

goes    into   Jimmy's    pasture.     How  the  plants  love  the  water ! 

Some  of  them  seem  to  run  right  into  the  brook.     Yes,  Johnny, 

*'  the  plants  need  water  as  much 
as  the  cows  do."  The  grass 
could  not  grow  if  the  water  did 
not  come.  "From  the  clouds." 
"  Comes  down  as  rain."  Yes. 
Then  it  soaks  through  the 
ground  and  comes  out  at  the 
foot  of  the  hill.  How  funny, 
that  hills  should  have  feet. 
"  Where  they  stand  on  the  level 
ground,  of  course." 

See  where    the    land   slopes 
Fig,  6g,  down   to    the    spring.     (Draws 


...^  "*"   •'"- 

-^      ,^.. 

.-.'- 

~<k.                Ufi 

,..•/.             ^  ^.- 

.t/.— 

J..     -.«- 

j,,  __                        0/, 

-""-- 

^.- 

-'''  — 

Mr 

Aa/tfj  Pasture  ^v- 

~M»-                       .\h^ 

158  Home  Geography, 

lines  for  the  slopes.)  "  Yes,  it  slopes  toward  the  brook  on  each 
side."  (Draws  slopes.)  How  many  slopes  in  the  little  brook's 
cradle  ?  "  Three."  "  If  there  were  four  it  couldn't  get  out  of  its 
bed."  Yes,  that  is  what  we  call  it,  the  brook's  bed.  But  the 
brook  does  not  get  out  of  its  bed,  for  the  larger  the  brook  grows 
the  larger  its  bed  becomes.  Yes,  James  is  right.  "  It  runs  into 
the  big  creek  that  makes  the  mill-pond  for  his  father's  mill." 
*'  That  is  Wolf  Creek."  So  the  Indians  called  it,  because  there 
were  many  wolves  there  before  the  white  men  came.  Can  you 
name  another  creek  ?  "  Muddy  Creek."  "  Slippery  Rock  Creek." 
This  last  one  is  long  and  deep.  But  how  does  Wolf  Creek  make 
the  mill-pond  ?  "  Some  men  built  a  dam  right  across  the  creek, 
so  the  water  was  stopped,  and  it  filled  up  behind  the  dam  until 
the  water  became  very  wide  and  deep,  and  then  ran  over  the 
dam."     That  is  told  very  well.     Let  us  draw  the  pond.     (Drav/s.) 

Some  day  we  shall  learn  of  something  that  is  much  like  a 
pond,  only  larger  ;  but  nobody  ever  built  a  dam  to  make  it. 

**  That's  a  lake  "  (says  Johnny). 

You  may  draw  the  pasture,  the  spring,  and  the  brook.  Make 
the  little  bunches  of  grass  like  this  (Fig.  68).  (Give  this  as  busy 
work.) 

From  the  crude  pictures  drawn  by  the  children  there  is  but  a 
step  to  the  conventional  map  (Fig.  69),  by  which  the  surveyor 
conveys  the  idea  of  pasture  land.  Have  the  children  draw  such 
squares  and  oblongs. 


Land  Forms. 


159 


Fig.  70. 


acsson  KK, 


Forms  of  Land. 

On  her  way  to  school  Jennie  came  through  the  pasture.  As 
she  opened  the  large  gate  I  saw  her  drive  back  the  cows  that 
tried  to  run  out  into  the  road.  Mr.  Smith  put  the  cows  in  there 
to  eat  the  grass,  Freddy  says.  "  It  is  not  very  good  now,  and  I 
guess  they  were  going  up  to  the  barn  because  the  weather  is 
cold."  You  little  Yankee,  to  *'  guess."  What  did  they  want  at 
the  barn  ?     "I  think  they  wanted  some  hay.  Miss  Clay."     Mary 


i6o  Home  Geography, 

says  that  in  the  meadow,  across  the  road  from  the  pasture  (Fig. 
70),  the  cattle  were  not  allowed  to  eat  the  grass  as  fast  as  it  grew. 
"  When  it  was  very  tall,  father  mowed  the  grass  and  made  hay." 
What  did  he  use  for  mowing  the  grass,  Kate  ?  ''  A  mowing- 
machine,  perhaps  ;  father  used  one  in  his  meadow."  **  So  flat 
that  the  horses  could  draw  the  machine  anywhere."  "  No 
stones." 

When  you  look  over  the  pasture  and  meadow  can  you  see 
other  differences  ?  "  The  pasture  is  rough  and  hilly."  "■  It  has 
briars  and  bushes,  but  the  meadow  has  none."  What  are  hills  ? 
"  Where  the  land  rises  up."  "  Where  the  land  is  higher  than  the 
rest."  The  sides  of  the  hills  we  call  slopes.  ''  Smith's  hill  has  a 
very  gentle  slope."  James  says  it  is  not  so  on  all  sides.  "Where 
the  road  leads  into  the  quarry."  "  Where  stone  is  taken  out  for 
the  walls  of  buildings."  ''  One  of  Uncle  Frank's  sheep  fell  over 
those  rocks  last  week."  Well,  Kate  ?  "  It  goes  straight  down." 
Let  us  call  the  place  where  it  goes  straight  down  a  sharp  slope, 
or  an  abrupt  slope.  "  Uncle  Frank  said  that  the  sheep  fell  over 
the — "  Did  he  say  it  fell  over  the  precipice  ?  "  Yes,  Miss  Clay  ; 
that's  what  he  said.  It  fell  over  the  precipice,  and  the  hill  is 
very  steep  there."  Carrie  ?  "  After  Mr.  Smith  had  cut  the  grass 
in  his  meadow,  some  of  the  hay  was  put  into  the  barn,  and  the 
rest  was  piled  up  back  of  it."  "■  The  sheep  were  turned  into  the 
meadow  to  eat  the  new  grass."  Why  did  not  your  uncle  put  the 
sheep  into  the  lower  lot,  James  ?  **  He  said  it  was  too  wet. 
Sometimes,  when  I  go  down  there  after  the  cows,  I  send  Rover 
to  drive  them  out  of  the  swampy  part.  Grandpa  says  that  when 
he  came  to  the  farm,  all  the  land  which  is  now  meadow  was 
swampy."  How  did  it  change  so  much  ?  ''  He  dug  ditches  to 
run  the  water  off."  Well,  Charlie  ?  "'  Father  uses  tiles  when  he 
drains  land."     ''  But  he  must  put  them  under  the  ground." 

Yes,  that   is  so.     When   there  is  too   much  water  it  must  be 


Picture  Maps,  i6i 

drained  off  into  a  brook  or  other  stream  if  we  wish  to  raise  good 
crops  on  the  land.  ''  Some  land  is  too  rough  and  stony  to  be 
plowed,  and  is  only  fit  for  pasture."  What  did  Mr.  Smith  plant 
near  the  barn  ?  "  Corn  and  potatoes."  "  In  the  field  are  many 
big  pumpkins."  "  Orange-yellow."  '*  The  corn  was  cut  a  week 
ago."  What  do  we  call  the  piles  of  cornstalks  as  they  are  set  up 
in  the  fields  ?  "  We  call  them  shocks."  Soon  the  corn  will  be 
husked,  and  the  bright  ears  taken  to  the  corn-crib.  ''  Meal  is 
made  from  the  corn."     "  Father  feeds  corn  to  the  pigs." 

We  have  named  so  many  kinds  of  land  that  we  should  write 
out  a  list  of  them  : 


(^^(h^^^^^s/^ 


/^^r^ 


(&^. 


t^'d^^ic^^l^d'^ 


You  may  copy  these  words  when  you  go  to  your  seats.  Yes, 
George,  "there  is  one  kind  we  have  not  written  yet,"  woodlands, 
and  I  will  put  that  at  the  last.  You  may  write  under  it  all  the 
new  kinds  you  can  remember.  Do  not  name  any  more  now. 
(Busy  work.) 

Let  me  see  your  picture-maps  of  the  pasture,  the  spring,  and 
the  brook.  Some  have  put  in  the  fence,  the  trees,  and  the  hill. 
Ruth  has  drawn  grass  and  rushes  (Fig.  71).  We  shall  soon 
learn  to  make  good  maps. 


l62 


Home  Geography, 


Fig.  71. 

(Made  by  a  child  about  eight  years  old.  The  sketch  is  not  perfect  by  any  means,  but  shows  a 
child's  natural  tendency  to  conventionalize  drawing  into  set  maps.  Notice  the  manner  in  which 
^e  represents  slopes.) 


Fig.  72. 


Picture  Maps,  163 

Uncle  Frank's  poor  old  sheep  fell  over  the  precipice.  Our 
little  brook  runs  out  of  the  pasture  too,  joins  the  big  creek,  and 
falls  over  a  precipice.  ''  That's  the  falls  "  (Fig.  72).  "  Tom 
and  I  were  down  there  fishing  last  Saturday."  '^  What  do  we 
call  it  .^  "A  waterfall."  Some  people  call  large  waterfalls  r«/<7;- 
7'acts. 

Here  is  our  list  of  words  for  the  vvaters.  Mary  may  name 
one,  and  then  write  the  word  neatly  upon  the  blackboard. 


^^^^^^^  {(^'le€'in^^ 


r^2^^^^^^^ 


t^^^j^^^^!^^  €^^         (P^e^-^^i^z^^ 


164 


Home  Geography, 


Products. 

The  teacher  examines  the  papers,  slates,  or  books  upon  which 
the  children  have  written  the  names  of  the  kinds  of  land.  Some 
children  have  added  new  words  at  this  place,  orchards,  coal-lands, 
clay-beds,  oil-lands.  These  are  added  to  the  blackboard  lists, 
and  give  basis  for  future  study.  Let  these  names  come  from  the 
children.  Some  of  those  given  above  would  be  the  last  men- 
tioned by  the  children  in  other  localities. 

What  a  large  number  of  useful  things  we  have  growing  upon 
the  land  !  The  meadows  give  us  grass  from  which  we  make 
hay,  and  in  the  ploughed  fields  we  may  plant  grain  and  other 
things.  Kate  may  name  some  of  the  common  crops.  ''  Wheat, 
oats,  rye,  and  barley."  James?  "  Corn  and  buckwheat."  "We 
feed  the  corn  to  the  hogs."  "  No,  not  all  of  it,  for  the  miller 
makes  meal  from  corn."  And  the  buckwheat  ?  "  Oh,  that  is 
made  into  flour  for  buckwheat  cakes  !  "  Jennie  may  tell  about 
the  crops.  ''We  have  pumpkin  pies  down  at  randma's  house; 
that's  the  way  grandma  uses  the  pumpkins."     A  very  good  way. 


Some  farmers  feed  them  to 


Fig.  73. 


the  stock."  (Fig.  73.)  Grandma 
says  that  her  mother  made  syrup 
by  boiling  pieces  of  pumpkin  in 
water."  ''  During  the  war  for 
independence."  '' They  couldn't 
get  sugar.  Sugar  makes  the 
pumpkin  sweet."  '*  Ben  and  I 
made  a  jack-lantern  last  night." 
(Fig.  74.)  (The  despised  jack-o- 
lantern,  thus  forcibly  thrown  into 
the  lesson,  need  not  necessarily 


Field  Products,  165 

be  rejected.  In  the  hands  of  a  skillful  teacher  it  fairly  beams 
with  light  in  regard  to  meridians,  parallels  of  latitude,  poles, 
zones,  triangular  and  four-sided  continents,  islands,  etc.  Pass  it 
by  for  the  present,  however,  until  the  boy  can  bring  it  as  an  ob- 
jective reality  into  the  schoolroom.  It  may  then  be  made  some- 
thing more  than  a  source  of  laughter.)  But  we  want  something 
about  other  crops,  Harry.  "  Mr.  Smith  paid  me  for  helping 
Tom  and  Paul  pick  up  the  potatoes  as  the  men  dug  them  out  of 
the  potaJ:o  hills."  "■  Yes,  Miss  Clay,  Harry  did  help  me,  and  we 
filled  great  bins  in  the  cellar,  and  piled  up  a  great  many  potatoes 
outside,  and  just  covered  the  whole  heap  with  straw  and  earth. 
Father  said  that  the  potatoes 
will  not  freeze,  even  if  the  win- 
ter should  be  quite  severe." 
Were  all  the  bins  filled  with 
potatoes }  "  We  picked  the 
apples  in  the  orchard,  and  put 
many    bushels    of   winter  apples 

into   dry   bins    above   the    cellar   ,^  

floors."     ''  Father  sent  all  of  his   -^  "R^si;  C^eofAfW 

apples  to   market,"  says    Jennie.  ^^"^  mhim^\cz\  U 

"  He   packed    them    in    barrels."  ^^^-  74- 

**  About  two  and  one  half  or  three  bushels  in  each  barrel." 
''  Baldwins  and  greenings,  russets  and  gilliflowers."  Well, 
Elizabeth  ?  ''  Uncle  John  sent  grapes  to  the  city  market." 
''  And  plums  and  pears."  *'  In  baskets."  "  We  nailed  the  covers 
down."     *'We  sold  all  the  peaches  at  home." 

You  have  told  me  about  the  products  of  the  fields.  Let  us 
make  up  our  list  on  the  blackboard.  Here  is  the  heading. 
Kate  may  write  the  names  of  two  products ;  then  Harry,  May, 
Elizabeth,  Jennie,  etc. 


1 66 


Home  Geography, 

WHAT  THE   FIELDS    PRODUCE. 


^y 


etz^, 


^^--^.^^ 


^-^^'^, 


e^'Z-d' 


/ 


\ 


^ 


(■^thers,  such  as  beets,  turnips,  cherries,  added  by  the  children  when  the  lists  are  copied.) 

NoAV  that  we  have  made  the  Hst  of  the  products  of  the  fields 
and  orchards,  let  us  tell  what  the  woodlands  give  us.  Paul  may 
tell.  ''  Logs  to  saw  into  lumber."  "  Ties  for  railroad  tracks." 
**  Father  cuts  rails  for  the  fences,"  says  Ben.  Good.  Carl  may 
tell  about  the  woodlands,  too.  "  Mr.  Morrison  had  the  large  oaks 
and  maples  cut  into  barrel-staves."  "  A  steam-mill  which  they 
could  move  along  the  road." 

We  call  that  a  portable  mill.  "  Mr.  Covert  uses  oak-bark  in 
his  tannery."     ''  We  cut  rails  and  bean-poles  down  in  the  young 


Field  Products. 


167 


Ftg.  75. 

The  fish-poles  and  the  clay  banks. 

growth."   Yes,  you  sly  little  fisherman,  Tom, — "fish-poles."    "We 
gather  chestnuts,  hickorynuts,  and  butternuts."     Here  is  our  list : 

WHAT  THE  WOODLANDS   GIVE   US. 


O'^'^M^^^t^K^^ -^e^J ,   ^y^i^^^-^-^,  ^^^^^^'«^£^ 


^d^='f^€^^ed^ 


/ 


/ 


'^^^ 


^^^ 


'^^ 


^t^'^^t^^ed^^ 


c 


^  U  t^a"^^='f2^€?^e<^. 


t^e- 


1 68  Home  Geography. 

We  did  forget  the  "  firewood,"  Jennie.  Write  the  word  fuel 
upon  the  blackboard. 

''  But  zve  use  coal."  "  W^e  dig  it  in  the  coal-out.''  That  is  a 
small  coal  mine.  We  shall  study  about  the  things  that  are  found 
underground,  but  no  more  to-day.  Draw  the  pumpkins  on  your 
slates. 


What  Men  Do,  169 

Occupations. 

Let  us  put  more  coal  in  the  grate  this  morning,  for  the  cold 
winds  are  blowing  outside  and  winter  is  coming.  We  have  had 
our  Thanksgiving  holiday,  and  have  come  back  to  our  studies, 
until  Christmas  day.  "  Miss  Clay  told  us  about  the  first  Thanks- 
giving." "  The  winter  was  very  cold,  and  the  Puritans  did  not 
have  much  to  eat."  "When  spring  came  they  planted  corn, 
oats,  beans,  and  ever  so  many  other  things,  so  that  they  would  be 
sure  to  have  enough  to  eat  during  the  next  winter."  ''  The  har- 
vest was  good,  because  the  men  tended  the  crops  carefully  all 
that  summer,  and  in  the  fall  there  was  plenty  to  put  into  the  cel- 
lars and  log  barns  which  the  Puritans  had  made."  1  am  glad 
that  you  know  the  history  so  well.  How  thankful  we  should  all 
be  that  God  provides  so  plenteously  for  us  in  this  beautiful  land 
of  ours. 

The  old  Puritan  governor  sent  four  men  out  hunting,  that  the 
people  "■  might  after  a  more  special  manner  rejoice  together." 
"■  Did  they  find  some  wild  turkeys  ?  "  Perhaps,  for  this  is  the 
home  of  the  turkey.  ''  We  do  not  send  men  out  to  hunt  for 
turkeys  now."  ''  Father  has  ever  so  many  turkeys  which  he  is 
keeping  until  Christmas."  He  will  sell  some  to  the  huskster  who 
will  take  them  to  the  city."  "  The  huckster  takes  the  feathers 
off  or  dresses  the  turkey  before  he  sells  it."  "  But  he  sells  some 
alive."     Yes,  that  is  true. 

How  many  things  we  have  for  Christmas  dinner  !  "  Apples," 
"  pears,"  *^  grapes,"  "  mince-pies,  and  sometimes  pumpkin-pies." 
*'  Nuts  and  candies."  Yes,  all  these  and  the  more  substantial 
foods,  too.     "  Potatoes."     *'  Father  has  a  whole  barnful  of  pota- 


I  TO 


Home  Geography. 


toes."  A  barn  full  of  potatoes,  Harry !  ''  Well,  perhaps,  not  so 
many  as  that,  but   the   men  are   filling  a  great   many  barrels  and 

sending  them  to  the  city." 
"  Farmers  raise  almost  every- 
thing." 

What  do  you  expect  to  have 
as  a  Christmas  present }  "  A 
sled."  "  Some  toys."  Do  you 
know  where  most  toys  are  made  ? 

The     people    who     live    in     the 
Fig.  76.  ,,     ,     ^ 

country    called    Germany    carve 

many  toys.  Some  of  the  peasants  who  live  near  the  Black  For- 
est becom.e  very  skillful  in  the  work.  All  the  members  of  a 
family  will  learn  to  carve  the  same  kind  of  toy.  "  Sheep  ? " 
Yes  ;  the  grandfather  will  learn  to  make  wooden  sheep,  and  then 
all  the  other  members  of  the  family  carve  sheep.  "  Wooden 
dogs,  camels,  horses,  and  lions."  "  Those  are  all  in  my  NoaJis 
Arkr  Even  the  very  small  children  learn  to  carve  the  soft  wood 
very  skillfully  with  their  sharp  jack-knives. 

"  Mother  will  buy  me  some  nice  shoes."  "  The  shoemaker." 
And  Harry  said  something  about  a  sled,  I  think.  "  The  black- 
smith makes  the  shoes  for  the  sled-runners."  "  Father  bought 
my  sled  at  the  store."  "  Mother  says  when  I  grow  up  she  will 
buy  me  a  fishing-rod  like  the  one  cousin  Albert  used  when  he 
caught  the  big  trout,"  says  Tom.  ''  He  caught  it  just  below  the 
falls."     **  Big  enough  for  a  whole  dinner,  almost." 

How  many  different  things  men  do  for  a  living !  Here  is  our 
hst  on  the  blackboard  : 

WHAT  MEN  DO. 

Some  raise  corn,  wheat,  and  other  foods Farmers. 

Others  dig  coal  and  iron  from  the  ground.    ...    ....  Miners, 


PVhat  Men  Do.  171 

Some  dig  stones  from  the  quarries Quarrymen. 

f  Shoemakers. 

I  Tailors. 
Others  make  things ^  Blacksmiths. 

Carpenters. 
_  Toy  makers. 

Some  buy  and  sell  or  ''  keep  a  store  " (  Merchants. 

(  Hucksters. 

Some  other  men  are (  Fishermen.) 

Here  are  some  words  which  show  what  men  are  doinsf : 


t^^T^^^-^^^^^^ 


-^^^■^'jl^^y 


d-  :^>2  '^Z;^^'^-^^^  ^^  '^^z 


€?-:^'7^'^^^€'^C€'      ^^      ^C^   ^fZtZ-€^'^^ 


'f^€^^ 


What  are  some  other  men  doing  ?  Tom  insists  that  we  must 
put  down  ^'  Fishermen."  Write  the  list  that  we  have  made,  and 
think  of  some  others.  (The  perspective  which  the  children  will 
give  to  these  various  callings  will  be  as  varied  as  the  homes  from 
which  your  pupils  come.) 


172 


Home  Geography, 


Fig.  77. 


Underground  Products. 

The  farmers  by  taking  care  of  their  farms  give  food  to  man- 
kind. What  is  the  word  that  tells  what  these  men  are  doing? 
"  Farming."  And  now  you  may  give  some  words  showing  what 
other   men  are  doing.     "Mining,  manufacturing,  trading."     Do 


''The  Fullness  Thereof/' 


173 


you  remember  some  of  the  forms  of  land  and  water?  (Children 
name  forms.)  James  says,  ''  The  whole  earth  is  made  up  of  land, 
water,  and  the  fullness  thereof."     (This  answer  is  just  as  the  little 


Fig.  78. 


boy  gave  it,  and  his  manner  showed  that  it  meant  considerable 
to  him.  See  Psalm  24.  i.  It  is  this  ^'fullness  thereof"  that  so 
many  teachers  neglect  in  their  geography  work.) 


174 


Coal  Mines. 


Yes  ;  the  things  we  find  in  the  water  and  in  the  ground  are 
very  important.  What  is  this  ?  "  A  lump  of  coal."  *'  It  came 
from  the  coal-bank.'"  "  That  is  what  some  people  call  a  small  coal 
mine."  ''  It  is  in  the  side  of  a  hill."  Let  us  make  the  sketch  of 
one.  Here  is  the  tool-house,  and  here  the  track,  and  the  coal- 
dump.  ''The  cars  and  mules  are  in  the  mine."  (Luckily  for  the 
inartistic  teacher.)    (Fig.  y^.)    "  The  mine  is  dark."    "  Father  digs 


Fig.    7g. 
I.  Horseback.     2.   Upper  Layer.     3.  Slate.     4.   Lower  Layer.     5,  Clay. 

coal."  "  The  miners  wear  lamps  on  their  hats."  How  is  the 
coal  taken  out?  "The  men  dig  it  out  with  picks.''  (Fig.  78.) 
"  Father  says  that  the  coal  in  our  coal-bank  lies  in  two  thick 
layers."  ''  Level  like  a  table."  "  Horizontal  layers."  Let  us 
draw  these  layers  of  coal.  "  Our  coal  rests  on  shale  and  clay." 
Here  is  the  layer  of  clay  and  shale.  ''  A  thick  layer  of  coal." 
"Then  a  layer  of  black  stone."     We  call  that  shale,  but  in  some 


Uses  of  Coal. 


175 


mines  the  layer  is  of  slate.  ''  Now  comes  another  layer  of  coal, 
and  then  a  layer  of  hard  stone  to  make  the  roof  of  the  mine.' 
"  Father  calls  that  the  '  horseback.'  "  It  is  sandstone  in  many 
cases.  George  has  been  in  the  mines.  Men  put  in  timbers  to 
support  the  roof-stone.  The  passages  are  sometimes  called 
galleries,  especially  when  one  is  above  the  others.     (Fig.  79.) 

How  useful  the  coal   is!     ''It   gives  us   heat."     "  To  burn  in 
stoves  and  grates."     "To  make  the  engines  go."     "The  locomo- 


FiG.   80. 

WHAT    WILTJF,    BROUGHT    NEXT   DAY. 
(Technically  the  Neuro/teris,  one  of  the  most  abundant  fossil  ferns.) 


tives,  and  engines  in  the  mills."  Can  you  name  any  other  uses  ? 
"  Coke  is  made  from  coal."  "  They  use  coke  in  changing  iron 
into  steel."  The  gas  for  lighting  the  streets  of  cities  is  made 
from  coal.  "  But  we  have  gas-wells  here."  "  Natural  gas." 
"  It  came  from  the  coal,  too."  "  Most  people  use  coal-oil  to 
light  their  houses."  Do  you  know  another  name  for  that? 
"  Petroleum."  These  all  come  from  the  coal,  men  say,  and  there 
are  many  other  coal-products.  "  Coal-tar."  Yes,  and  some  very 
beautiful  dyes  are  made  from  petroleum. 


176 


Forms  of  Coal, 


Do  you  know  what  is  made  from  the  clay  that  is  under  the 
coal?  "Mr.  Hammond,  my  uncle,  makes  fire-brick  from  the 
clay."  "In  Westmoreland  county."  "At  Bolivar."  "To  line 
the  inside  of  stoves  and  furnaces."     That  protects  the  iron. 

Willie  says,  "  I  found  some  prints  of  leaves  on  a  piece  of  coal.'* 
"  Limbs  and  bark."  These  belong  to  plants.  Did  the  coal  come 
from  plants?  "We  think  it  did."  How  much  it  has  been 
changed !  Willie  may  bring  the  leaf-coal  into  class  to-morrow. 
"  Ferns."  These  were  much  larger  than  those  which  grow  in 
our  swamps. 

How  many  in  class  have  ever  seen  any  other  kind  of  coal  ? 
None.  Here  is  a  piece  of  coal,  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  our 
state.  Compare  it  with  that  which  is  found  here.  "  It  is 
harder."  "  It  does  not  break  into  layers."  "  That  is  bright  all 
over."     There  are  two  kinds  of  coal. 


(Bzmmznous.) 


(Anthracite,) 


THE  GREAT 

HARD 

COAL  STATE 

SOFT 

PENNSYLVANIA, 


Fig.  81. 
(first  map  of  state.) 


Products  of  Coal.  177 

A  State, — Pennsylvania. 

A  County, — Westmoreland. 
A  County, — Butler. 

A  Village, — Slippery  Rock. 
A  Village, — Bolivar. 


The  coal-products  are  : 


HARD  COAL,  ^^g     j  natural, 

SOFT  COAL,  '    (  manufactured. 

COKE,  COAL-TAR, 

PETROLEUM,  DYES. 

(From  the  underlying  clay,  Fire-brick.) 

(The  writer  includes  in  this  lesson  some  things  which  are  generally  regarded  as  anything  but 
elemental  ;  still  to  little  children  who  may  see  these  sights  in  our  state,  a  row  of  flaming  coke- 
ovens  a  mile  long,  or  the  volcanic  outbursts  of  great  steel  works,  are  nothing  unusual,  "  Do  Ye 
Nexte  Thinge  "  is  inscribed  upon  the  walls  of  the  great  school  at  Eton.) 


,78 


Coke  Ovens. 


Fig.  82. 


aesson  UK. 

Manufacturing. 

Many  persons  are  engaged  in  f arguing  and  7ni7img,  and  now 
we  should  learn  something  about  what  other  men  do  to  support 
themselves  and  their  families.  In  our  last  lesson  we  learned 
something  about  the  men  who  dig  the  coal.  ^'  They  are  called 
miners."  "George's  father  is  a  miner.''  The  men  who  load  the 
coal  are  called  helpers  or  simply  laborers.  "  Mules  are  used  in 
hauling  the  coal  along  the  gangway."  "  Not  all  of  the  roof  is 
called  Jiorseback.''  No,  only  that  part  which  bulges  into  the  coal 
and  sometimes  cuts  off  the  layer.  Name  the  common  coal- 
products.     (Review  of  previous  work.) 

Tommy  speaks  of  Coke.    "  It  is  made  just  by  burning  coal." 


Tradesmen,  179 

"  It  isn't  burnt  up  to  ashes,  but  heated  in  large  stone  ovens." 
Men  call  that  roasting  the  coal.  Only  the  soft  black  bituminous 
coal  is  used.  *'  It  is  called  coking  coal^  because  it  forms  coke." 
This  is  the  most  important  of  the  bituminous  coals,  and  the  coke 
is  used  as  fuel  in  MAKING  pig-iron  and  steel.  "  When  the  coal  is 
put  into  the  ovens  it  swells,  and  melts  or  runs  together  into  large 
pieces."  "  Water  is  then  thrown  in  to  quench  the  coke,  which  is 
then  raked  out  of  the  ovens."  ''  W^e  use  '  bee-hive  '  ovens."  Do 
you  know  why  they  are  called  by  that  name  ?  *'  Like  bee-hives." 
''  Not  much  like  the  bee-hives  which  my  father  has  for  his  bees." 
"  Like  the  bee-hives  which  we  see  iw  pictures."  I  saw  the  men 
building  one  of  the  ovens,  and  they  used  wooden  frames  shaped 
like  parts  of  a  huge  orange.  Over  these  the  men  built  an  arched 
wall  of  fire-brick  for  the  inside  lining  of  the  oven.  The  ovens 
are  built  in  long  rows  (Fig.  82),  near  the  mines.  In  the  Connells- 
ville  coke  region  there  are  nearly  twenty  thousand  ovens.  Coke 
is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  used  in  the  melting  of 
silver  and  gold  as  well  as  in  the  melting  of  iron.  Thousands  of 
men  get  their  living  by  making  coke  from  the  coal  which  the 
miners  dig  in  the  mines.     What  do  some  other  men  do? 

"  Mr.  Brown  makes  lumber  at  his  saw-mill."     ''  He  buys  logs, 
and  saws  them  into  lumber."     "^  sawyer'' 

''Mr.  Sampson  makes  boots  and  shoes."     ''A  shoanakery 
"  My  father  has  a  grist-mill,  and  grinds  the  wheat  and  corn  to 
make   flour  and   meal."       "  We   call  the   men   who   make  flour, 
millers'' 

The  men  who  made  the  fire-brick  were  brick-makers,  and  the 
men  who  laid  the  stone  and  brick  in  building  the  coke  ovens 
were  masons.  These  men  work  at  their  own  TRADES.  Can 
you  namie  some  other  trades?  "The  carpenter."  "He  builds 
and  repairs  houses."  "  The  tailor,  who  makes  clothes."  The 
harness-maker,    blacksmith,    cooper,    cabinet-maker,    and    carriage- 


i8o  Tradesman. 

maker.''     "They  earn  their  living  by  making  things  and  seUing 
them  to  other  men."     We  shall  say  that  most  of  them  live  by 

Here  is  our  list  of  men  who  work  at  trades  : 

Brick-makers,  Millers,  Blacksmiths, 

Coke-makers,  Carpenters,  Carriage-makers, 

Masons,  Tailors,  Coopers, 

Sawyers,  Saddlers,  Cabinet-makers. 

Write  the  names  for  some  trades  in  which  the  men  do  not 
make  or  manufacture  things.  (Idea  of  a  profession  to  be  de- 
veloped from  this  afterwards.)     (Painters,  etc.) 

Some  kinds  of  manufacturing  require  that  a  great  number  of 
men  be  employed  together  in  order  that  the  best  results  be 
reached.  Large  sums  of  money  are  needed  in  the  building  oi  the 
works,  so  some  men  who  have  Capital  form 


and  are  commonly  known  as 

The  men  who  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  coke  form 
companies  which  also  work  mines  of  coal.  One  of  these  is  the 
Union  Coal  and  Coke  Co.,  of  Greenville,  Pa.,  which  works  the 
mines  nearest  to  us.  (Keister.)  The  great  steel  works  at  Brad- 
dock,  Pa.,  are  operated  by  a  great  company  that  is  engaged  in 


The  Iron  City. 


i8i 


the  manufacture  of  steel,  and  also  of  the  coke  used  in  the  process. 
Our  nearest  city,  Pittsburg,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures,  and  is 
often  called  the  IRON  CITY.  Large  quantities  of  steel  rails 
are  made.  (Teacher  draws  map  upon  board.)  Here  is  the  Iron 
City.  We  will  make  this  small  circle  to  mark  the  place  upon  the 
rivers.  Here  is  Philadelphia;  here  Harrisburg;  and  this  is  Al- 
toona  among,  the  mountains.     What  is   made   in  Philadelphia  ? 


Fig.  83. 


''Saws  are  made  there."  "The  saws  in  our  sloyd-room  are 
marked  '  Henry  Disston  &  Sons,  Philadelphia.'"  '' At  Altoona 
locomotives  are  made."  "At  Harrisburg  there  are  large  foun- 
dries and  machine-shops."  "  Mr.  Black  was  elected  to  go  to 
Harrisburg  to  make  laws''  That  is  a  different  kind  of  manufact- 
uring, most  people  think.  Draw  the  maps  upon  paper  or  upon 
your  slates.  (Fig.  83.)  How  shall  we  bring  the  saws  from  Phila- 
delphia to  Pittsburg  } 


1 82  Trades, 

Bird  Trades. 

The  swallow  is  a  mason, 

And  underneath  the  eaves 
He  builds  a  nest,  and  plasters  it 

With  mud  and  hay  and  leaves. 

Of  all  the  weavers  that  I  know, 

The  oriole  is  the  best ; 
High  on  the  branches  of  the  tree 

She  hangs  her  cozy  nest. 

The  woodpecker  is  hard  at  work — 

A  carpenter  is  he — 
And  you  may  hear  him  hammering 

His  nest  high  up  a  tree. 

Some  little  birds  are  miners ; 

Some  build  upon  the  ground  ; 
And  busy  little  tailors,  too, 

Among  the  birds  are  found. — Ex, 

This  little  poem,  written  on  a  square  of  cardboard,  is  handed 
t«o  some  member  of  the  class. 

John  may  read  the  selection  about  the  birds. 

(John  reads.)  Even  the  birds  have  trades.  A  great  emperor 
of  Russia  learned  the  trade  of  shipbuilding,  that  he  might  know- 
when  his  ships  were  properly  built.  We  should  honor  all  men 
who  work  at  trades.     Let  us  name  some  of  the  trades.    (Review.) 

Here  we  may  study  what  the  cooper  does  at  his  trade : 


The  Cooper. 


183 


THE  COOPER. 

f  barrels,  hogsheads 
I  tubs 

1.  What  he  makes.    -{  pails 

I  kegs 
[  casks 

f  adz 
I  plane 

2.  His  tools -j  drawing-knife 

mallet 
chisel 

'  Kinds  of  wood 

t  (  wooden 

noons    {  . 
^      (  iron 

staves 

heads 


3.  Materials  used. 


(  oak 
I  beech 
(fir 


i  Placing  staves. 
4.  Making  the  barrels,  etc.  I  Driving  on  the  hoops. 

(  Putting  in  heads 


84 


Ocaipations, 


Fig.  84. 


iLesson  VM:^. 


Buying  and  Selling. 


Some  men  do  not  earn  all  of  their  money  by  their  trades 
alone.  What  does  Mr.  Coulter  do  ?  "  He  makes  tin-ware  and 
sells  it,  but  he  buys  stoves  in  the  city  and  sells  to  the  farmers 
and  village  people." 

Mr.  Bingham  keeps  a  hardware  store.  He  sells  axes,  saws, 
and  tools  of  all  sorts  used  by  carpenters,  masons,  miners,  and 
others.  "  The  farmers  buy  their  plows,  harrows,  hay-rakes,  and 
other  farm  implements  at  his  store."  "  Mowing  machines," 
''  Seed-drills." 

Mr.  Kerr  sells ^r^^^nV^.  ''  Sugar,  tea,  coffee,  flour,  butter,  lard, 
spices,  and  all  such  things." 

Mr.  Christy  keeps  dry-goods.  ''  All  kinds  of  cotton  and  woolen 
cloth  and  silk-goods."  ''  Laces,  ribbons,  and  buttons."  But  he 
keeps  boots  and  shoes,  too."  Yes,  in  many  country  stores  the 
stock  is  very  wide. 


Woo  Toy.  185 

Mrs.  McCarnes  keeps  a  millinery  store.  "  Ladies'  hats  and 
bonnets."     "  Ribbons,  collars,  and  laces." 

"Woo  Toy  has  the  laundry''  "He  washes  clothes."  *' He 
says,  *  no  payee,  no  washee'  "  "  When  I  take  brother's  collars 
and  cuffs  down  there,  he  gives  me  a  little  piece  of  yellow  paper 
with  such  queer  marks  on  it."  "  I  lost  the 
paper  one  day,  and  he  wouldn't  give  me  the 
clothes  at  first."  "Wing  Lee,  who  works  for 
him,  uses  a  queer  little  frame  when  he  counts 
up  what  you  owe  him."  "  Little  wooden 
buttons."  (Fig.  84.)  "  I  asked  him  to  show 
me  how  to  use  it,  but  he  asked  me  whether  I 
couldn't  count.  But  he  showed  me  how  to 
use  the  counting-frame  at  last."  "  He  said, 
'  Clos  washee,  number  one,  chop,  chop, 
missey.' "  That  meant  that  he  would  wash 
the  clothes  well  very  soon.  "What  funny 
talk  !  "  Some  people  call  it  Pigeon  English. 
Only  those  who  come  from  English  ports 
in  China  talk  that  way.  After  they  have 
been  here  a  short  time  they  talk  much  bet- 
ter. 

Woo  Toy  and  Wing  Lee  write  numbers 
in  characters  like  these.  (Fig.  85.)  There  are 
seven  other  figures  used  in  writing  numbers, 
but  these  are  the  first  ten. 

"  These  two  men  are  yellow."  ^^'    ^' 

"Mr.  Brooks  keeps  the  barber  shop."  "  He  is  a  black  man." 
"  A  negro."  "  Barbers  have  for  their  work  the  shaving  of  beards, 
and  cutting  and  dressing  the  hair." 

Mr.  Ramsey  bakes  bread  and  cakes.  His  place  of  BUSINESS 
is  called  the  bakery. 


-— 

f  i/ih 

^ 

2   urh 

"*, 

3  San 

m 

^  5ze 

R 

q)  woo 

A 

6  Juk 

± 

7  tseik 

A 

S'  pa 

k 

f  ke^ 

+ 

^Oshih 

i86 


Places  of  Business, 


Mr.  Glutton  has  the  drug-store ^  and  Mrs.  Hunt  keeps  a  book- 
store, 

Mr.  Martin  carries  on  his  business  as  a  butcher,  and  keeps 
the  meat  shop. 

So,  also,  we  find  the  trade  of  the  weaver  represented  by  those 
men  and  women  who  work  in  the  woolen-mill  on  Wolf  Creek,  and 
by  Mrs.  Carter,  who  weaves  carpets  on  an  old-fashioned  loom. 
"  Rag-carpets."  ''  Quite  pretty  carpets,  too,  with  stripes  of  yel- 
low and  black,  and  red  and  gray." 

Now  we  have  some  more  kinds  of  trades  to  add  to  our  list,  and 
we  can  make  this  list  of  the  PLACES  OF  BUSINESS  of  the 


t^i^C-^^'^^^d'. 


PLACES   OF   BUSINESS. 

The  Grocery, 

Meat-shop — and 

Hardware        - 

Dry-goods 

Flour  and  Feed 

Millinery     - 

Drug     - 
Book 


The  Bakery. 


Stores. 


These  merchants  buy  GoODS  in  large  quantities  [WHOLESALE] 
and  sell  in  smaller  quantities  to  the  users  or  consumers  [RETAIL]. 

(According  to  the  degree  of  advancement  of  the  children  the  teacher  should  here  give  exer- 
cises in  the  writing  of  common  bills  of  goods,  receipts,  etc.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  the 
lesson  in  arithmetic  taking  a  geographical  aspect  and  impressing  a  general  truth.) 

John  may  pass  to  the  board  and  add  to  the  list  men  who  work 
at  trades.     (The  class  names  them.)     "  Weavers^  hitchers^  laun- 
dry  men,  tin-smiths,  bakers,  etc'' 
"And  barbers."     Yes,  Tommy. 


A  Picture  Gallery, 


187 


Fig.  86. 


Races  of  Men. 

Here  is  another  thought  which  we  may  express.  All  of  these 
men  are  not  of  the  same  kind  or  race.  "  They  differ  in  color." 
Also,  in  character  and  in  speech.  '■'■  The  white  people  or  race." 
"  The  yellow  race."  "  The  black  race."  "  The  red  men  or 
Indians." 


My  teacher,     -         -         - 
Woo  Toy,   -         -         -         . 
Mr.  Brooks,     - 
The  Indians,         .         _         _ 
The  Lecturer's  Companion, 


White    '\ 
Yellow   I 
Black     \ 
Red 
Brown 


Races  of  Men. 


The  minister  who  was  lecturing  brought  with  him  a  boy  who 
was  brown.     ''  A  Malay,  that's  what  the  minister  called  him." 

Each  child  in  the  lower  grade  may  be  interested  in  making  a 
series  of  mounted  pictures  of  the  principal  races  of  men.     Fold 


1 88 


A  Picture  Gallery, 


the  closed  envelope  from  the  square  of  colored  paper,  according 
to  the  usual  directions  given  in  paper-folding ;  then  make  the 
folds  indicated  in  Fig.  Z^.  Have  the  children  cut  out  the  pict- 
ures found  in  newspapers  and  periodicals  and  use  them  in  making 
the  little  picture  gallery. 

Fig.  87  shows  what  a  child  will  bring  to  show  for  the  Chinese. 


Fig.  87. 


Others  have  mounted  pictures  of  Standing    Bear,   Sitting  Bull, 
Fred  Douglass,  and  Phillips  Brooks. 

At  the  close  of  each  lesson  the  children  must  put  away  all  bits 
of  paper  cast  aside  while  cutting  out  the  pictures.  Gum  traga- 
canth  dissolved  in  water  makes  a  very  cheap  and  clean  paste.  A 
wooden  toothpick  is  a  neat  little  implement  for  use  in  applying 
the  paste.  With  a  little  care  there  need  be  no  necessity  for  soil- 
ing hands,  desks,  or  clothing. 


Outline  from  '' Edtication  of  Man.''  189 

In  connection  with  the  lessons  the  following  may  be  used : 

TRADES   AND    PROFESSIONS. 
[Oufline  from  Froebel's  "  Education  of  Man."] 

Section  40.     Mabej  F.  McCarnes,  Teacher. 

''  I  consider  it  to  be  the  first  and  most  important  part  of  the 
education  of  children  to  lead  them  early  to  think." 

40.  Information  that  the  child  gains  from  the  employments  of 
those  around  him. 

1.  The  child  of  the  Farmer — 

Learns  to  distinguish  between  the  different  grains,  their  uses, 
and  the  adaptability  of  the  different  soils  to  them. 

2.  Of  the  Sportsman — 

To  understand  the  aiming  and  care  of  a  gun. 

3.  Of  the  Blacksmith — 

The  principle  of  the  expansion  of  metals  by  heat. 

4.  Of  the  Merchant— 

The  principle  of  the  balance ;  the  characteristics  of  the  seeds 
and  other  articles  sold,  and  the  difference  between  weight  and 
gravity. 

5.  Of  the  Fishermen — 
Some  of  the  habits  of  fish. 

6.  Of  the  Bark-peeler  and  Tanner — 
How  to  tan  leather. 

7.  Of  the  Shoemaker — 
How  to  stretch  leather. 

8.  Of  the  Doctor— 

The  simple  laws  of  health. 

9.  Of  the  Wagon-maker — 
The  plan  of  axles,  etc. 

10.  Of  the  Printer — 

The  reversion  of  the  model,  and  the  printing  from  the  type. 


iQo  Selection  from  kuskin. 

II.  Of  the  Carpenter,  Joiner y  Cooper,  etc. — 
An  idea  of  the  plane  and  chisel ;  of  the  preparation  of  iron, 
the  use  of  different  woods,  and  to  distinguish  between  them. 

Selection  from  Ruskin. 

"  People  never  have  had  clearly  explained  to  them  the  true 
functions  of  a  merchant  with  respect  to  other  people.  I  should 
like  the  reader  to  be  very  clear  about  this. 

"  Five  great  intellectual  professions,  relating  to  daily  necessities 
of  life,  have  hitherto  existed — three  exist  necessarily  in  every 
civiHzed  nation  : 

"  The  Soldier's  profession  is  to  defend  it. 
"  The  Pastor's,  to  teach  it. 
"  The  Physician's,  to  keep  it  in  health, 
"  The  Lawyer's,  to  enforce  justice  in  it. 
"  The  Merchant's,  to  provide  for  it. 

"  That  is  to  say,  he  has  to  understand  to  their  very  root  the 
qualities  of  the  thing  he  deals  in,  and  the  means  of  obtaining  or 
producing  it  ;  and  he  has  to  apply  all  his  sagacity  and  energy  to 
the  producing  or  obtaining  it  in  perfect  state,  and  distributing  it 
at  the  cheapest  possible  price  where  it  is  most  needed. 

"  And  because  the  production  or  obtaining  of  any  commodity 
involves  necessarily  the  agency  of  many  lives  and  hands,  the  mer- 
chant becomes  in  the  course  of  his  business  the  master  and  gov- 
ernor of  large  masses  of  men  in  a  more  direct,  though  less  con 
fessed,  way  than  a  military  officer  or  pastor ;  so  that  on  him 
falls,  in  great  part,  the  responsibility  for  the  kind  of  life  they  lead  ; 
and  it  becomes  his  duty,  not  only  to  be  always  considering  how 
to  produce  what  he  sells  in  the  purest  and  cheapest  forms,  but 
how  to  make  the  various  employments  involved  in  the  production, 
or  transference  of  it,  most  beneficial  to  the  men  employed.  .  .  , 


Selection  from  Ruskin.  191 

"  Two  main  points  he  has  in  his  providing  function  to  maintain  : 
first,  his  engagements  (faithfulness  to  engagements  being  the  real 
root  of  all  possibilities  in  commerce)  ;  and,  secondly,  perfectness 
and  purity  of  the  thing  provided  ;  so  that  rather  than  fail  in  any 
engagement  or  consent  to  any  deterioration,  adulteration,  or  un- 
just and  exorbitant  price  of  that  which  he  provides,  he  is  bound 
to  meet  fearlessly  any  form  of  distress,  poverty,  or  labor,  which 
may,  through  maintenance  of  these  points,  come  upon  him." 


192  Professions, 


Other  Occupations. 

How  do  the  persons  who  keep  stores  and  other  places  of  busi- 
ness let  the  people  know  what  things  are  for  sale  ?  "  They  put 
up  sigJisy  What  are  these  signs  like  ?  James  may  write  one  on 
the  blackboard.     James  writes : 

GLUTTON    BROS., 
Drug  Store. 

*'  In  the  city  I  saw  a  big  bowl  upon  a  post  in  front  of  the  drug- 
store." That  is  called  a  mortar  and  pestle.  The  clerk  uses  a 
small  mortar  and  pestle  when  he  grinds  and  mixes  the  drugs. 
"  The  barber  has  a  tall  pole  striped  with  red  and  white."  "  I 
can't  see  what  that  means." 

Long  ago  barbers  performed  the  duties  of  surgeons,  and  the 
stripes  represented  the  winding  of  the  bandage  around  the 
arm  of  the  patient.  The  persons  who  do  such  work  now  are 
called  surgeons  or  doetors.  "  They  take  care  of  the  health 
of  people."  "They  help  us  to  become  well  again."  "We 
should  be  careful  of  our  health."  "  By  exercise."  Little  doc- 
tors at  home. 

Those  that  educate  the  children  are  called  teachers.  Doctors 
and  teachers  follow  PROFESSIONS.  Can  you  name  other  men 
who  have  professions?  "The  lawyer  writes  deeds  and  other 
papers,  and  gives  advice  about  law."  "  He  argues  cases  in 
court." 

The  minister  or  pastor  has  charge  of  a  church  or  congregation. 
"The  sexton?"  No,  not  in  the  same  way.  "He  preaches." 
"We  call  our  minister  the  rector.''  "St.  Marks."  Very  well. 
Let  us  make  the  list. 


Professions.  193 

Men  having  Professions. 

Surgeon.  Minister. 

Doctor.  Lawyer. 

Teacher.  (Others) 

These  are  very  useful  men. 

How  did  we  decide  to  bring  the  saws  from  Philadelphia  to 
Pittsburg?  (Fig.  88.)  We  will  take  the  rails  made  at  Pittsburg 
and  lay  a  track  to  Philadelphia.  At  Altoona  we  will  put  an  en- 
gine on  the  track  and  run  to  Harrisburg.    Then  we  will  take  some 


Fig.  88 
(By  a  boy  of  fifteen.) 

Commerce. 


cars  at  Harrisburg  and  run  down  to  Philadelphia.  Here  we  can 
load  the  cars  with  sloyd  saws  and  other  things,  and  run  back  to 
Pittsburg. 

The  men  have  laid  the  track  already,  and  the  work  is  done. 
(Some  rough  sketching.)     ''  A  railroad."     "  Many  men  work  for 


194  Commerce  and  Government, 

the  railroad  company."     "  The  man  who  runs  the  engine  is  the 
engineer''     The   man   who  helps   him   is  the  fireman.     He  who 
collects  the  fares  and  has  charge  of  the  whole  train  is  the  con- 
ductor.    The  men  who  help  him  are  brakesmen,  baggagemen,  etc. 
The  trainmen  are  : — 

Conductor,  Brakesmen, 

Engineer,  Baggageman, 

Fireman,  Express  Agent, 
Postal  Agent,  and  others. 

The  trains  carry  goods  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  an- 
other.    So  the  cars  are  great  aids  in 


Letters  are  carried  on  the  cars  to  the  POST-OFFICES.  The 
man  that  attends  to  the  mail  and  sees  to  its  distribution  is  the 
postmaster,  and  he  is  an  officer.  Do  you  know  how  to  send  a  let- 
ter ?  Where  should  the  stamp  be  placed  ?  "■  The  address  should 
be  written  plainly."  ''  We  should  put  a  stamp  on  the  upper 
right  corner  of  the  letter."  ''Two  cents."  (Fold  the  closed  en- 
velope, and  have  children  write  the  address  of  some  friend.) 

The  postmaster  is  called  an  ofificer  ;  can  you  name  some  other 
officers  ?  "  The  constable.''  "  The  tax-collector,  school  director, 
bnrgess,  justice  of  the  peace,"  etc.     '^  A  policeman  in  the  city." 

"The  mayor."  '' A  sheriff  d^t  Homestead."  "The  governor 
sent  troops  to  help  him  keep  order."  "  President  Cleveland  is 
now  at  Washington." 

These  are 


Commerce  and  Government, 


195 


Policeman, 
Sheriff, 
Mayor, 

Governor, 
President 


Officers  for  Government, 

Postmaster, 

School  Director, 
Tax  Collector, 
Constable, 

Justice  of  the  Peace, 
Burgess. 


196 


Animals, 


ILtnmn  XK« 

Local  Products. 

We  may  make  written  lists  of  the  animals,   vegetables,  and 
minerals  found  within  our  school  district. 

Animal,  Vegetable,  and  Mineral  Productions 

OF  WOLFORD   SCHOOL  DISTRICT,    SLIPPERY  ROCK,  BUTLER .  COUNTY,  PA. 


Frances  E.  Hays, 

"C"  class. 

Illula  S. 

Animals. 

Christley,   Teacher 

Fox, 

Guinea-hen, 

Humming-bird, 

Hornet, 

Horse, 

Duck, 

Ladybird, 

Yellowjacket, 

Cow, 

Goose, 

Toad, 

Wasp, 

Pig, 

Peafowl, 

Frog, 

Honey-bee, 

Sheep, 

Pigeon, 

Tortoise, 

Potato-bug, 

Goat, 

Robin, 

Crab, 

Snake-feeder, 

Dog, 

Wren, 

Lizard, 

Weevil, 

Cat, 

Sparrow, 

Tree-frog, 

Cabbage-worm, 

Rabbit, 

Blackbird, 

German  Carp, 

Tomato-worm, 

Groundhog, 

Crow, 

Blacksnake, 

Rose-bug, 

Opossum, 

Hawk, 

House-snake, 

Firefly, 

Norway  rat, 

Yellowbird, 

Garter-snake, 

Earth-worm, 

Field-mouse, 

Screech-owl, 

Rattlesnake, 

Centipede, 

Barn-mouse, 

Barn-owl, 

Water-snake, 

Flea, 

Gray  squirrel. 

Woodpecker, 

Bumblebee, 

Gnat, 

Flying  squirrel. 

Sap-sucker. 

Ant, 

Sheep-tick, 

Chipmunk, 

Bluejay, 

Cricket, 

Gadfly, 

Pine-squirrel, 

Meadow-lark, 

Moth, 

Roach, 

Skunk, 

Whippoorwill, 

Horsefly, 

Miller, 

Raccoon, 

Bobolink, 

Butterfly, 

Caterpillar, 

Musk  rat, 

Chippie, 

Grasshopper, 

Beetle, 

Mink, 

Oriole, 

Snail, 

Ladybug, 

Weasel, 

Summer  swallow,       Cut-worm, 

Katydid, 

Bat, 

Quail, 

Mosquito, 

Cimicidae, 

Chicken, 

Pheasant, 

Spider, 

Apple-tree  borer, 

Turkey, 

Turtle-dove, 

House-fly, 
Vegetables. 

Anoplura. 

Potato, 

Pear, 

Chickweed, 

Ornamental  beet, 

Tomato, 

Cherry, 

Golden-rod, 

Four-o'clock, 

Cabbage, 

Chokecherry, 

White-oak, 

Nasturtium, 

Beet, 

Raspberry, 

Black-oak, 

Hyacinth, 

Turnip, 

Strawberry, 

Red-oak, 

Nicotiana, 

Parsnip, 

Blackberry, 

Swamp-oak, 

Marigold, 

Celery, 

Elderberry, 

Ash, 

Honeysuckle, 

l/egetables  and  Minerals, 


197 


Beans, 

Dewberry, 

Maple, 

Fern, 

Pease, 

Juneberry, 

Chestnut, 

Moss. 

Lettuce, 

Huckleberry, 

Hickory, 

Caladium, 

Kohl  Rabi, 

Gooseberry, 

Gum, 

Crape-myrtle, 

Cauliflower, 

Wild-plum, 

Wild  cherry, 

Ivy, 

Radish, 

Grape, 

Dogwood, 

Mignonette, 

Onion, 

Currant, 

Ironwood, 

Daisy, 

Salsify, 

Quince, 

Locust, 

Violet, 

Spinach, 

Crab-apple, 

Linden, 

Lady-slipper, 

Sage, 

Wheal, 

Black  walnut. 

Dahlia, 

Parsley, 

Oats, 

White  walnut, 

Aster, 

Cucumber, 

Corn, 

Alder, 

Hydrangea, 

Muskmelon, 

Rye, 

Sassafras, 

Bleeding-heart, 

Pumpkin, 

Buckwheat, 

Elm, 

Peony, 

Eggplant, 

White  clover, 

Poplar, 

Flowering  Almond, 

Peppers, 

Mammoth  clover, 

Willow, 

Megarrhiza    Califor- 

Squash, 

Medium  clover. 

White-thorn, 

nica. 

Mushroom, 

Alsike  clover, 

Balm-of-Gilead, 

Clematis, 

Peppermint, 

Timothy  grass. 

Geranium, 

Snowball, 

Hops, 

Red-top  grass. 

Fuchsia, 

Lilac, 

Rhubarb, 

Wild  grass. 

Calla-lily, 

Verbena, 

Horseradish, 

Fall  grass, 

Leopard-lily, 

Heliotrope, 

Mustard, 

Blue-grass, 

Cactus, 

Garland      or     Mock 

Carrot, 

Burdock, 

Tulip, 

Orange, 

Rutabaga, 

Plantain, 

Poppy, 

Symplocarpus, 

Catnip, 

Smartweed, 

Rose, 

Mulberry, 

Caraway, 

Ragweed, 

Pink, 

Apricot, 

May-apple, 

Nettle, 

Feverfew, 

Sea-onion, 

Asparagus, 

Parsley, 

Pansy, 

Oxalis, 

Chives, 

Mullein, 

Sweetpea, 

Snapdragon, 

Garlic, 

Canada-thistle, 

Forget-me-not, 

Bridal-wreath, 

Apple, 

Common  thistle, 

Chrysanthemum, 

Peach, 

Texas  burr. 

Gladiolus, 

Plum, 

Tansy, 

Marshmallow, 

Minerals. 

Iron-ore, 

Flagstone, 

Fire-clay, 

Gas, 

Coal, 

Sandstone, 

Brick-clay, 

Water. 

Limestone, 

Sand, 

Oil, 

The  dictionary  had  been  consulted  when  Cimicidse  and 
Anoplura  were  added  to  the  hst.  Let  us  hope  that  these  last 
two  are  not  very  generally  distributed  in  the  district.  How 
many  of  our  children  are  able  to  recognize  a  dozen  minerals, 
know  the  names  of  one  hundred  and  four  animals  common  in  the 
locality,  or  can  name  one  hundred  and  sixty  vegetables.  Old 
dame  Nature  is  a  wonderful  teacher  of  children. 


198 


The  Queen  of  the  Pansies. 


^ome  ^tutiiejS  m  ajSjSociateti  Linesi* 


Study     I,  A  Myth — The  Stepmother  Flower. 

II.  The  Little  Plant  that  Longed  to  be  Useful. 

III.  What  the  Young  Oak  Said. 

IV.  A  Queer  Counting  Device. 

V.  A  Study  of  the  History  of  a  State. 


Fig.  89.- 


I. — A  Myth.     The  Stepmother  Flower. 

In   the    hands   of   the   skillful    teacher   many 
beautiful  myths  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  giv- 
ng  increased  interest  to  many  of  the  facts  in  sci- 
ence.    Interest  is  emotional  rather  than  intellect- 
ual, but  it  is,  nevertheless,  the  indispensable  basis 
for  higher  development.     The  problem  of  teach- 
ing a   child   any  technical,   scientific    facts,   con- 
cerns  not    so    much    the   manner  of   giving  him 
sensations  regarding  them,  nor  yet  power  to  un- 
derstand  them,  but   rather  how  to   arouse  such 
interest  as  will  lead  him  to  set  his  mind  at  work 
upon  themi.     Many  of  these  stories,  coming  up 
to   us   out  of  the  folk-lore   of  the 
race,  act   upon  the   child's   nature 
through  the  subtle  element,  sym- 
pathy,  and   the    growing   mind    is 

^         ^  ,       held  to  matter  which  misfht  other- 

-Cruel  Queen  of  the  fc- 

Pansies,  wise  fail  to  secure  recognition, 


The  Queen  of  the  Pansies. 


199 


The  Cruel  Queen  of  the  Pansies. 
During  the  spring  term  the  children  in  the  school  received  in 
structions  in  some  of  the  simpler  facts  of  botany,  and  learned 
about  sepals,  petals,  calyxes  and  corollas.     Attention  was  given, 
also,  to  the  beautiful  colors  found  in  the  flowers. 

Nellie's  mother  takes  great  pride  in  her  choice  varieties  of 
pansies,  and  many  bouquets  of  the  rich,  velvety  beauties  find  their 
way  into  the  schoolroom  now  that  the  duties  of  school  life  have 
been  taken  up  again.  The  teacher  received  some  of  the  pansies 
this  morning,  and  said  :  "  Children,  shall  I  tell  you  the  legend  of 
the  pansy  to-day?  Little  Nellie  has  brought 
some  beautiful  ones  to  me  this  morning,  and 
I  want  you  to  take  a  long  look  at  them  be-  i 
fore  I  begin  the  story.  Harry  may  pass 
this  pansy  to  his  seat-mate  as  soon  as  he  has 
looked  at  it  carefully,  Susan  may  give  this 
to  Mary,  and  Josie  this  one  to  Gertrude." 
After  a  number  of  flowers  were  thus  dis- 
tributed, the  teacher  said  :  ''  Count  the  pet- 
als ;  now  the  sepals."  ''It  has  five  petals 
(Fig.  90)  and  five  sepals,"  says  Harry. 
''Look  for  the  little  man  deep  (See  5,  Fig. 
91)  down  in  the  center  of  the  flower."  "I 
have  found  him."  "So  have  L"  "He  has 
a  yellow  cloak  over  his  shoulders."  The  attention  of  the  chil- 
dren was  drawn  to  the  great  lower  petal  which  seems  to  spread 
itself  out  as  if  it  were  proud  of  its  gorgeous  beauty.  (3). 
"  What  a  splendid  velvet  dress  !  "  "  Do  you  see  the  two  plain 
petals?  (i,  i)  The  upper  ones  have  only  plain  colors."  '  But 
the  other  two  petals  (2,  2)  are  very  handsome  and  much  like 
the  large  one."  "All  embroidered  with  gold  like  the  lar^e 
petal." 


Fig.  90. 


200 


The  Qjt ecu's  Dj lighter , 


"  Listen  now,  my  children,  to  the  story  as  it   is  told   to  the 
little  children  in  Germany. 

*'  A  long  time  ago  there  lived  a  king  who  had  a  very  beautiful 
wife  and  two'  charming,  accomplished  daughters.  But  death 
claimed  the  mother,  and  after  a  time  their  father  married  a  queen 
who  also  had  two  daughters.  But  the  stepmother  was  very 
jealous  of  any  praise  given  the  king's  daughters.  She  tried  to 
I-*  make  them   unhappy  in   all  possible   ways, 

and  dressed  them  in  plain  clothes  that  she 
might  make  them  miserable  and  envious  of 
K>  her  own  daughters,  whom  she  dressed  in  the 
richest  and  costliest  fabrics.  The  king's 
daughters,  however,  cared  nothing  for  costly 
dresses,  but  rather  sought  ways  for  adorning 
their  minds  and  becoming  useful  to  their 
father  and  his  people. 

"The  queen's  own  daughters,  although 
decked  with  the  most  costly  jewels  and 
clothed  with  garments  only  less  beautiful 
than  those  of  the  queen  herself,  were  still 
unable  to  excite  the  love  and  admiration  of 
the  king's  subjects,  and  still  less  the  love  of 
many  young  princes  who  came  to  woo  the 
king's  daughters.  The  queen  became  very 
angry,  and  resolved  to  offer  every  insult  to 
those  two  stepdaughters.  Around  the  throne  (Fig.  90)  in  the 
court-room  of  the  palace  were  five  massive  chairs  of  green  bronze. 
*  You  shall  have  but  one  chair  together,'  said  the  wicked  queen  to 
the  modest  princesses,  her  stepdaughters.  Do  you  wish  to  see 
the  green  chair  upon  which  the  two  princesses  are  seated  ? 
Then  pull  off  the  two  upper  petals  of  the  pansy."  "  I  see  it  now," 
says  Sarah,  "how  cruel  the  old   queen  was!"    (i)    "But  to  her 


Fig.  qt. 


The  Poor  Old  King.  201 

own  daughters,"  continued  the  teacher,  ''she  gave  each  a  chair, 
and  you  may  see  them  by  pulHng  off  the  two  side  petals.     (2,  2.) 

"  But  there  were  five  women  and  five  chairs,  and  how  could 
the  queen  find  an  excuse  for  putting  her  two  stepdaughters  upon 
one  chair  ?  '  Ah,  I  have  it,'  said  she.  '  My  robes  are  so  elegant 
and  costly  that  I  fear  they  would  be  crushed  were  I  to  sit  upon 
one  chair.  I  really  need  two  chairs  that  I  may  spread  out  my 
beautiful  robes  and  take  proper  care  of  them.'  Pull  off  the  large 
petal,  May."  Now  all  the  children  were  able  to  see  that  the 
queen  had  occupied  two  chairs. 

"  But  the  queen  was  not  satisfied  by  merely  making  her  step- 
daughters uncomfortable,  she  even  tried  to  withhold  their  food 
from  them.  At  last  the  king  became  so  indignant  that  he  ban- 
ished the  queen  and  her  daughters  from  his  kingdom.  Now  the 
queen  in  her  youth  had  been  a  sorceress,  and  had  learned  magic 
from  an  old  wizard.  While  living  with  the  king  she  had  forgotten 
much  of  the  art,  and  the  old  wizard  was  dead.  So  she  thought, 
and  thought,  and  thought,  and  finally  recovered  so  much  of  her 
wonderful  powers  that  she  was  able  to  carry  out  her  vows  of 
vengeance  and  have  the  king  again  under  her  control.  She  con- 
demned him  to  sit  forever  upon  his  throne  with  his  feet  plunged 
in  boiling  water."  The  teacher  then  showed  the  poor  old  king 
seated  on  his  throne  in  the  center  of  the  five  chairs.  '*  See,  he  is 
clad  in  his  golden  robes  of  state,  and  just  beneath  him  is  the  tub 
(4)  of  boiling  water.  Look  at  his  poor  parboiled  legs  and  feet." 
(5).  As  the  teacher  spoke,  the  sac  or  spur  (4)  of  the  pansy  was 
gently  slit  with  a  pin,  and  the  feet  disclosed.     (Fig.  91.) 

II.    The    Little    Plant    That    Longed    to    be    Useful. 

Near  the  banks  of  a  southern  river,  in  the  warm,  rich  soil  of 
the  fields,  a  little  plant  was  growing  with  many  of  its  companions. 


202  The  Cotton-plant 

Day  by  day  it  had  been  growing — simply  growing — since  that 
morning  in  April  when  the  negroes  had  put  the  little  green 
seeds  into  the  ground.  It  had  lain  there  in  its  warm  earth-bed 
until  the  rain  came  from  the  clouds  and  soaked  down  to  the 
little  seed  and  said,  ''  Grow,  little  seed,  grow  !  " 

So  to  the  little  seed  there  came  a  queer  feeling,  as  if  its  little 
green  jacket  would  burst. 

"  I  can  grow,"  thought  the  little  seed,  ''  and  I  will.''' 

Now  with  a  little  seed,  to  tJiink  is  to  act ;  so  out  through  the 
green  sack  or  jacket  it  thrust  a  little  white  foot  down  into  the 
rich,  brown  earth.  And  now  from  the  very  top  of  the  green  sack 
a  Httle  head  peeped  out. 

''  Come  up,  come  up,  my  little  one  !  "  said  the  great  sun  as  a 
warm  smile  spread  over  his  broad  face.  And  the  little  plant 
came  up,  and  grew  and  grew. 

The  days  went  by,  and  the  plant  put  forth  dark  green,  five- 
lobed  leaves  (Fig.  92),  filled  vv^ith  blue  veins  in  which  the  sap,  its 
blood,  was  flowing.  Men  came  with  hoes  and  kept  down  the 
weeds  that  tried  to  choke  the  plant.  How  the  young  plant  en- 
joyed the  sight  of  its  companions,  as  in  long  and  regular  rows 
they  stretched  across  the  broad  field !  Some  of  them  seemed 
larger  and  handsomer  than  itself,  but  the  little  plant  knew  that 
against  the  great  superiority  of  others  there  is  no  remedy  but 
love  ;  so  it  just  kept  on  loving  and  admiring  them.  Growing,  too 
so  very  fast  that  now  the  plant  was  almost  as  high  as  your  desks. 
Then  it  thought  and  thought ;  and  with  a  plant,  to  tJiiiik  is  to  act, 
and  each  thought  means  a  blossom. 

Such  a  beautiful  straw-colored  blossom  each  one  was  !  Five 
dainty  yellow  petals,  each  with  a  purple  spot  at  its  base  (Fig.  92). 
The  whole  flower  looked  very  much  like  a  hollyhock.  Indeed, 
there  was  nothing  strange  about  that,  for  the  little  plant  was  first 
cousin  to  the  proud  hollyhocks  up  by  the  mansion,  and  hoped  to 


Thought  and  Action.  203 

see  them  at  the  annual  reunion  of  the  Mallow  family.  To  be 
sure,  the  hollyhocks  were  very  tall  and  stately,  and  held  their 
heads  up  very  high  that  they  might  show  their  beautiful  flowers 
in  all  their  tints  of  rose,  purple,  and  yellow,  and  sometimes  purest 
white.  Had  they  not  come  all  the  way  from  Syria  ?  But  our 
little  plant  knew  that  it  is  better  to  be  useful  than  to  be  beautiful, 
so  it  kept  on  growing. 

Yet  the  hollyhocks  need   not  have  looked  so  scornfully  upon 


Fig.  92. 
it,  for  Pliny,  an   old   Roman   author  who  lived  many  years  ago, 
had  found  a  quaint  Arabic  name  for  our  httle  friend,  and  called 
it  Gossypimn.     But  then  the  negroes  did  not  use  that  name ;  they 
called  our  little  plant — COTTON. 

How  beautiful  its  pale  yellow  blossoms  were  in  the  morning 
sunshine!  Each  pretty  flower  was  held  up  by  the  fingers  of  a 
little  hand  through  the  three-parted  sleeve  with  its  laces  and 
fringes  at  the  wrist.  And  deep  down  in  each  blossom  there  was 
a  little  green  pocket. 


204  The  Lordly  Hollyhocks, 

All  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  our  little  plant  had  been  think- 
ing,  too,  and  the  whole  rich  field  looked  like  a  vast  garden  of 
flowers.  The  little  plant  could  see  the  yellow  blossoms  all  over 
the  cotton-field.  As  the  sun  rose  high  at  noon,  many  of  the 
blossoms  became  pure  white.  Were  its  own  blossoms  taking  on 
that  beautiful  creamy  white  ?  The  little  cotton-plant  blushed  at 
the  thought  of  its  own  loveliness,  and  a  flush  of  delicate  pink 
spread  over  the  pretty  petals.  Surely  the  lordly  hollyhocks  could 
not  be  scornful  now  !  As  the  sun  went  down  the  flush  on  the 
petals  became  deeper,  and  in  the  morning  many  flowers  had 
changed  to  a  most  beautiful  pink  in  color.  How  glad  the  little 
plant  was ! 

But  then,  one  cannot  be  beautiful  always.  Soon  the  sun 
came  up  to  fade  the  flowers,  and  the  rain  and  wind  came  to  tear 
them,  until  all  their  beauty  and  use  seemed  gone.  Still  the  little 
plant  held  up  its  arms  and  hands  to  the  sun.  And  now  the  little 
green  three-cornered  pockets  grew  larger  and  larger,  day  by  day, 
as  the  little  hands  still  clutched  them. 

"  I  shall  be  of  use  some  day,"  said  the  little  plant  to  itself,  as 
it  dreamed  of  its  lovely  blossoms  through  the  long,  sultry  days  of 
summer.  Little  seeds  were  growing  in  the  pockets,  and  resting 
on  beds  of  downy  softness. 

How  very  warm  the  days  were,  and  how  the  sun  did  scorch 
the  pockets  until  they  became  quite  brown  !  The  little  cotton- 
plant  thought,  and — Pop  !  pop  !  !  The  brown  pockets  were  burst 
open,  and  the  top  of  the  plant  seemed  covered  with  snow.  Had 
a  storm  of  ready-made  snowballs  fallen  upon  the  cotton-field  ? 

(Fig.  93-) 

Soon  some  colored  people  came  into  the  field  and  com- 
menced to  pick  off  the  bolls  of  cotton  fibre  which  the  plants  had 
produced.  And  down  from  the  mansion-house  the  owner  of 
the   plantation    came   with    his    little    daughter    Etta.     As   they 


The  Cotton-field. 


205 


passed  along  the  field,  the  little  cotton-plant  heard  the  father 
saying  : 

"  The  cotton  is  picked  and  carried  in  bags  to  the  cotton-gin. 


Fig.  93. 

This  machine  separates  the  seeds  from  the  fiber  of  the  cotton. 
Then  the  cotton   is   pressed  into  big  bundles  or  bales,  and  these 


2o6 


Cotton  Picking. 


are  carried  away  by  steamers  to  distant  towns,  and  made  into 
calico,  gingham,  sheeting,  or  musHn.  Tlie  Hindoos  make  some 
musHn  so  fine  that  when  it  is  laid  upon  the  grass  and  covered 
with  dew  it  looks  like  a  spider's  web.  They  call  them  ivcbs  of 
woven  wind. 

The   little   plant  wondered  what  would  become  of  its   fluffy 
globes  of  pure  white  cotton,  and  hoped  that  they  might  be  made 


Fig,  94. 


into  such  beautiful  fabrics  as  those  of  which  the  father  was  speak- 
ing.    Then  it  would  be  of  some  use. 

"  Papa,  papa,  let  me  pick  some"  cotton,"  cried  Etta  as  she 
passed  along  the  path.     (Fig.  94.) 

The  plant  seemed  to  stretch  out  to  her  its  hands  to  give  up 
the  ten  beautiful  bolls  of  cotton  that  it  held.  So,  when  Etta's 
father  told  her  she  might  pick  the  cotton,  the  little  girl  gathered 


Voices  of  the  Trees.  207 

all  that  the  plant  had,  and  put  the  pure  white  bolls  into  the  large 
basket. 

The  little  plant  was  now  at  leisure  to  watch  the  men  and 
women  as  they  came  day  after  day  to  gather  the  ripened  cotton. 
For  the  cotton  did  not  ripen  all  at  once.  When  you  put  corn 
into  a  popper,  some  of  the  kernels  will  pop  out  sooner  than 
others  ;  and  in  the  same  way  the  bolls  of  cotton  pop  out  under 
the  heat  of  the  southern  sun.  The  cotton  continued  to  ripen 
and  open  for  some  months,  but  the  little  plant  still  stood  there 
in  the  field. 

"Whatever  will  become  of  my  treasure  of  cotton  that  the 
little  girl  gathered  ?  "  said  the  plant  to  itself. 

Along  the  path  a  sleepy  old  mule  was  coming,  dragging  a 
cart  loaded  with  cotton.  "■  I  am  sure  that  something  useful  will 
be  made  from  it,  and  that  I  have  lived  to  some  purpose.  That 
is  all  one  needs  to  know  to  be  happy.  I  wonder  why  the  webs 
of  woven  wind — " 

Just  then  the  wheel  of  the  cotton-cart  came  crushing  down 
upon  the  little  plant,  and  its  life  was  ended.  Wouldn't  you  like 
to  know,  too,  what  became  of  the  ten  cotton  bolls  that  Etta 
gathered  ? 

III.    What   the    Young   Oak    Said. 

Children,  have  you  ever  heard  the  voices  among  the  forest 
trees  ?  Did  you  ever  hear  the  trees  whispering  to  themselves,  or 
sighing  or  sobbing,  oh,  so  sorrowfully?  Have  you  not  heard 
them  singing  or  chanting,  now  soft  and  low  in  sweetest  melody, 
now  loud  and  clear  in  grand,  triumphant  chorus  ?  And  then, 
how  the  great  old  oaks  speak  to  us  of  strength  and  power  as  they 
spread  wide  their  kindly  arms,  making  shade  for  weary  children ! 
Yes,  and  the  laughing,  happy  maples,  brightest  and  most  cheer- 


2o8  J/oices  of  the  Trees. 

ful  of  trees  ;  as  the  sunshine  plays  among  their  leaves,  the  whole 
summer  seems  to  lie  hidden  there. 

"  Once  I  rode  through  the  dark  wood,  and  the  trees  seemed 
to  weep  and  moan  as  the  wind  swept  through  them,"  says  Lettie. 
"  At  home  we  have  two  old  oaks  which  bend  toward  each  other 
and  seem  to  be  speaking  in  loving  tones  ;  we  call  them  the 
'  Affectionate  Oaks,'  "  says  Mary. 

"  But,  Miss  Christley,  I  never  heard  the  trees  say  anything," 
says  Tom.  What  did  the  pussy-willows  tell  you  ?  Did  they 
not  tell  you  that  spring  had  come  ?  "I  did  not  think  of  that." 
And  then  the  tall  and  slender  iron-wood  and  maple  saplings 
seem  to  laugh  and  say,  ''The  brooks  are  open,  come  a-fishing, 
Tom." 

To-day  we  brought  some  beautiful  young  oaks  and  maples 
from  the  woods  and  set  them  out  upon  the  lawn.  "They  will  be 
great  trees  some  day."  "  Two  kinds  of  maples  in  the  woods." 
"  Hard  and  soft."  '*  Different  leaves."  "  White  oaks,  red  oaks, 
pin  oaks,  and  black  oaks."  Can  we  make  the  young  trees  tell 
their  story?  Let  us  go  out  into  the  woods  to-day  and  see.  The 
snows  have  melted  away,  and  warm  rains  have  come.  Here  we 
are  under  this  great  oak,  which  is  such  a  big,  kind-hearted  tree 
that  we  feel  something  of  trust  coming  into  our  hearts  as  we 
look  at  the  grand  tree's  gnarled  branches. 

"  A  goodly  tree  it  is; 
And,  towering  to  the  skies, 
The  fury  of  the  wind  defies; 
From  age  to  age  in  virtue  strong, 
Inured  to  stand  and  suffer  wrong." 

Take  that  stick  and  push  aside  some  of  the  dead  leaves. 
Pick  up  some  of  the  acorns, — the  cradles  in  which  the  baby  oaks 
lie  sleeping.     ''Did  you  say  sleeping  .f*  "     This  one  is  awaking; 


The  Oak  in  its  Cardie. 


209 


for  here  the  cradle  shell  is  softened,  and  the  germ  has  swollen 

and  burst  through  to  send  the  young  oak's  baby  foot,  the  radicle, 

down  into  the  soft,  black  earth.     "  See  the  cradle's 

delicate  pink  lining."       (Fig.  95.)     But  look  at  the 

one  that  Johnny  brings  us.      (Fig.  96.)     Here  the 

delicate  pinkish-green  head  shoots  upward  to  the 

light.    This  head  is  called  the ///^;;2z//r.    "  Loaks  like 

a  plume."     "How  fast   it   grows!"     "What  does 

the  baby  oak  eat?"    He  lives  upon  starch.    "Stored 

up  for  him  in  his  cradle." 


Fig.  95. 


In  the  heart  of  a  seed 

Buried  deep,  so  deep, 
A  dear  little  plant 

Lay  fast  asleep. 
"Wake  !  "  said  the  sunshine 

"  And  creep  to  the  light," 
"  Wake  !  "  said  the  voice 

Of  the  raindrop  bright. 
The  little  plant  heard, 

And  it  rose  to  see 
What  the  wonderful 

Outside  world  raidit  be. 


Break  open  the  brown  cradle  shell  and  see  the  two  thick 
loaves  of  bread.  "White,  with  a  tinge  of  green."  The  young 
oak  is  nourished  by  this  food  while  the  little  radicle  enters  into 
the  black  soil  and  puts  forth  little  branches  and  fibres  all  covered 
with  fine  white  hairs.  Through  these  branches  the  young  oak 
drinks  up  water  from  the  soil.  "  Bread  and  water."  "Starch." 
We  shall  prove  the  starch  to  be  in  the  acorn  when  we  go  back  to 
the  class-room.  So  the  young  oak  is  nourished  by  the  starch-food 
of  the  two  loaves.     Some  call  these  cotyledons. 


2IO 


Uses  of  Oak, 


grand 
ling 


After  a  few  days  the  young  oak  shows  a  well  grown  root  and 
stem,  and  sends  out  broad  pink-green  leaves.     Mary  has  found 

one  of  the  large  oak-babies.     How  beautiful  it 

is !     See,  there  is  no  more  food  in  the  shriveled 

acorn  (Fig.  97),  and  so  the  young  oakling  must 

draw  all  of  his  food  from  the  earth  and  the  air. 

This  he  has  learned 

to  do,  and  the  now 

useless  cradle  falls 

a  v/  a  y.       What    a 
little     sap- 
it   is !     Don't 

you    think    it   will 

become  a  great  red 

oak  tree  some  day 
and  have  many  a  beautiful  leaf?  Do 
you  hear  ivhat  the  oakling  says  to  you  ? 
'  Learn  to  depend  upon  your  own, 
efforts."  ''Self-reliance."  ''Grow- 
ing upward." 

Back  from  our  forest  visit,  now 
in  quiet  class-room.  "Oak  for  the 
solid  floors,  oak  in  desks  and  tables." 
"  Panels  in  doors."  "  The  seats 
and  chairs  of  oak  sometimes."  "  Fur- 
niture for  houses."  Useful,  valuable 
wood.  "  Bark  for  tanning  leather." 
Live  oak  \ox  ships.  "  Corks  fromi 
the  bark  of  Spanish  oaks."  Gallnuts 
are  obtained  from  oaks,  and  are  used  F^^-  97- 

in  making  ink  and  medicines.     These  are  not  fruits  like  acorns, 
but  swellings  caused  by  insects  that  puncture  the  bark  of  the  oak 


Testing  for  Starch. 


211 


twigs  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  wounds.  The  so-called  oak-apples 
found  on  the  leaves  of  our  red  oaks  are  gallnuts,  but  are  not  valu- 
able like  those  found  in  Western  Asia,  because  they  do  not  con- 
tain so  much  tanmn  or  ink-producing  acid. 

Shall  we  find  the  starch   in   the  acorn?     Let  me  put  these 
grains  of  -starch  into  this  tube  (A)  with  some  water,  and  Charlie 


Fig.  98. 

may  hold  it  over  the  lamp  until  the  water  boils.  Here  is  another 
tube  with  water,  and  I  shall  put  into  it  these  pieces  of  oak-bread 
from  the  acorns.  Mary  may  boil  this  (B)  over  the  lamp.  Now 
I  take  these  two  little  crystals  (potassium  iodide)  and  drop  one 
into  each  tube.  Hold  the  tubes  over  the  lamp  again  until  the 
water  boils.  The  crystals  are  now  dissolved.  Into  the  starch 
liquid   I   put  three    drops  of  this   acid  (hydrochloric),  and  see  ! 


212 


The  Chimpu. 


"  The  liquid  is  blue."  Chemists  say  that  the  starch  has  been 
colored  blue.  Mary  may  take  this  little  dropping-glass  and  put 
three  drops  of  the  acid  into  the  other  tube  which  has  the  pieces 
of  acorn  in  it.  ''  Look  !  "  ''  It  is  blue  like  the  other."  "  There 
is  starch  in  acorns."  A  wise  man  has  said,  "  Read  Nature  in  the 
language  of  experiment." 

IV.  A  Queer  Counting    Device. 

The  Chimpu  Used  by  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Indians. 
The  chimpu  is  a  reckoning  device  still  employed  in  some  re- 
mote parts  of  Peru  and  Bolivia.     It  consists  principally  of  a  cer- 


FiG.  99. — The  Chimpu. 
tain  number  of  cords  tied  together  at  one  of  their  extremities  and 


Correlation.  213 

along  which  slide  small  perforated  balls.  The  cords  are  of  differ- 
ent colors,  and  the  balls  are  made  of  the  shells  of  various  fruits. 
These  balls  can  be  strung  all  at  the  same  time  upon  all  the  cords, 
or  upon  a  certain  number  only. 

The  Indian  thus  has  a  m.eans  of  creating  for  himself  categories 
of  juxtaposed  numbers  corresponding  in  our  processes  to  as  many 
columns  as  there  are  cords  in  the  apparatus.  If,  as  it  happens, 
moreover,  the  native  calculator  decides  that  the  balls  strune  a 
single  time  shall  represent  units,  that  those  through  which  two 
cords  pass  shall  equal  tens,  etc.,  he  will  be  able  to  represent  any 
number  whatever.  He  will  figure,  for  example,  as  in  the  draw- 
ing, the  number  4456  by  stringing  6  balls  on  one  cord,  5  on  two 
cords,  4  on  three  cords,  and  4  on  four  cords.  The  little  instru- 
ment once  tied  at  tlie  lower  extremity,  as  it  was  previously  at  the 
upper,  will  indefinitely  preserve  the  quadruple  numbers  which 
have  been  confided  to  it. 

V.     A  Study  of  the   History  of  a  State. 

Successful  teachers  of  geography  and  history  will  readily  ad- 
mit that  these  two  branches  of  study  are  very  closely  related,  and 
cannot  be  separated  in  the  logical  development  of  either.  The 
geographic  treatment  of  history  is  essential  to  the  clear  under- 
standing of  the  physical  conditions  of  human  society.  Historical 
study  is  made  much  more  attractive  to  the  child  when  his  own 
interest  can  be  made  to  pass  into  the  narrative  through  full  illus- 
trations from  biography,  and  the  careful  introduction  of  the  de- 
tails of  local  history.  Nor  have  we  far  to  seek  the  reason  for  this 
increased  attention  and  interest.  The  association  of  ideas 
through  contiguity  in  time  and  place,  together  with  the  correla- 
tions of  cause  and  effect,  etc.,  will  offer  full  explanation.  But  in 
these  days  teachers  are  beginning  to  tire  of  the  endless  preaching 
of  the  bare  ps}'cliological  truths,  and  are  rather  disposed  to  ask 


2  14  Historical  Maps. 

with  St.  Paul,  not  '*  What  wilt  thou  have  me  believe  ? "  but 
"  What  wilt  thou  have  mc  to  do  ?  "  If  the  submission  of  the  fol- 
lowing plan  for  "doing"  should  afford  help  to  my  fellow-workers, 
the  purpose  of  this  study  will  be  accomplished. 

In  all  the  older  states  the  places  of  note  are  very  numerous, 
and  many  of  the  younger  states  possess  spots  no  less  sacred  in 
the  history  of  American  liberty.  The  historical  events  and  noted 
names  associated  with  the  history  of  the  great  state  of  Pennsyl- 
vania may  all  be  grouped  about  the  three  great  rivers  of  the 
state.  Let  the  teacher  or  pupil  prepare  a  simple  outline  of  the 
state,  drawn  upon  manilla  paper,  and  with  the  courses  of  the 
rivers  carefully  marked.  Now,  as  the  text-book  is  studied,  let  the 
pupils  be  instructed"  to  note  carefully  all  facts  having  a  direct 
bearing  upon  the  history  of  their  own  state,  and  have  these 
names  indicated  in  the  proper  places  upon  the  chart.  Thus,  it 
will  be  found  that  in  the  period  preceding  the  Revolution,  the 
grouping  occurs  about  the  Delaware  and  the  two  branches  of  the 
Ohio.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  the  great  name  of  Penn 
overshadows  the  whole  section,  while  Pitt  is  associated  with  all 
the  names  and  places  of  the  western  part.  The  central  portion, 
afterwards  so  celebrated  through  the  bloody  struggle  at  Gettys- 
burg, has  few  associations  with  that  earlier  time  ;  the  settlement 
of  John  Harris  upon  the  Susquehanna  marking  the  capital  at 
Harrisburg.  Commencing  at  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  we 
have  the  Swedes  at  Chester  in  1638;  Wm.  Penn  at  Philadelphia, 
1682  ;  Daniel  Boone  born  in  Berks  Co.,  1735;  coal  used  as  fuel, 
1768;  John  Harris  at  the  Susquehanna,  1726.  Then  we  may  go 
westward  along  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line,  run  out  as  a  boundary 
in  1763-7.  This  afterwards  became  the  idixwows  slave  line.  Above 
it  we  find  Ft.  Necessity;  then  the  battlefield  at  Braddock,  1755  ; 
Ft.  Duquesne,  1754;  Ft.  Venango  and  Ft.  Le  Boeuf  northward 
to  Lake  Erie.     The  little  town  of  Kittanning  localizes  this  period 


Historical  Maps, 


215 


2i6  .  Epochs  in  History. 

for  some  of  us  who  come  from  this  old  Indian  village  on  the 
'*  large  stream."  And  these  old  names,  associated  through  the 
French  and  Indian  war,  we  find  illumined  by  that  of  Washington. 
(See  Fig.  lOO.) 

In  the  period  of  the  Revolution  the  region  between  the  Sus- 
quehanna and  the  Delaware  comes  into  prominence.  The  name 
of  Washington  overshadows  all.  We  find  Independence  declared 
at  Philadelphia,  1776  ;  Trenton,  and  the  crossing  of  the  Delaware, 
1776;  Chadd's  Ford,  Brandy  wine,  and  Germantown,  1777;  Valley 
Forge,  1777-8,  with  La  Fayette  and  Steuben,  the  old  drill  master, 
so  sorely  needed.  Pulaski,  with  his  consecrated  banner,  rises 
from  the  old  nunnery  at  Moravian  Bethlehem,  1778,  while  the 
same  year  sees  Queen  Esther  sv/eep  down  with  the  Tories  and  her 
Indians  to  the  massacre  at  Wyoming.  Howe,  the  British  general, 
keeps  guard  over  Philadelphia,  while  the  spirit  of  Franklin  directs, 
even  across  the  broad  Atlantic,  the  actions  of  the  congress 
as  it  flies  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster  and  York.     (See  Fig. 

loi.) 

As  the  war  closes,  Harrisburg  is  founded  in  1785,  and  becomes 
the  capital  of  the  state  in  1812.  Dr.  Joseph  Priestley,  the  dis- 
coverer of  oxygen,  1774,  comes  to  this  country  from  England  in 
1794  to  pass  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  David  Bradford  leads 
in  the  Whisky  Rebellion,  of  1794,  and  "  Light  Horse  Harry" 
comes  up  from  Virginia  to  quell  the  insurrection.  Could  he 
dream  that  his  greater  son  would  lead  the  hosts  to  battle  among 
the  hills  at  Gettysburg?  At  Erie,  in  1796,  **  Mad  Anthony 
Wayne,"  returning  from  the  Northwest  Territory,  dies  leaving  the 
Indians  to  dread  the  return  of  ''  Big  Wind  "  should  they  dare  to 
m.ake  war  upon  the  Americans.  Fifty-one  years  before,  in  Ches- 
ter county,  in  the  opposite  corner  of  the  state,  this  brave  com- 
mander first  saw  the  light  of  earth. 

In  making  these  charts  the  names  maybe  printed  in  chalks  of 


From  177^  to  iSoo. 


217 


2i8  Value  to  the  Eye-Minded. 

different  colors,  and  these  may  be  ''  fixed  "  or  prevented  from 
rubbing  by  spraying  with  a  httle  absolute  alcohol. 

Teachers  of  history  must  not  ''  strain  at  a  gnat  and  swallow  a 
camel,"  at  least  in  the  matter  of  dates.  We  have  Authority  for 
all  which  we  have  given,  and  although  all  authorities  do  not 
agree, — and  our  cuts  would  not  allow  of  the  day  and  month, — 
still  we  would  not  have  the  MOTIVE  of  the  work  lost  in  any  quib- 
bles as  to  dates.  Some  may  even  dispute  the  treaty  of  peace,  or 
the  purchase  of  lands  by  Penn  ;  still  a  monument  in  Philadelphia 
marks  the  spot,  called  by  the  Indians  Shackamaxon,  where,  under 
a  spreading  elm,  the  formal  treaty  is  said  to  have  been  made.  In 
the  studio  of  an  artist  may  be  seen  many  broadly  executed 
sketches  called  ''  studies,"  and  we  have  these  in  mind  when  we 
name  our  sketch  from  a  teacher's  class-room  ''  A  Study  of  the 
History  of  a  State."  We  have  sought  for  main  impressions,  and 
do  not  claim  that  there  may  not  be  a  dash  of  misplaced  color  in 
the  picture. 

After  all  is  said,  the  ''  new  education,"  in  the  teaching  of  the 
subject,  has  passed  beyond  the  mere  microscopic  accuracy  of 
chronological  tables,  and  would  grasp  something  of  the  philosophy 
of  history. 

An  old  German  proverb  says,  ''  What  goes  into  the  mind 
through  the  eyes  never  comes  out  again."  It  is  to  such  associa- 
tions of  the  concrete  in  teaching  that  the  old  Moravian  school- 
master, Comenius,  appealed  when  he  gave  to  the  world  his  *'  Orbis 
Pictus." 

In  our  study  of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  we  shall  be  some- 
what arbitrary  in  our  separation  of  the  events  into  time-periods, 
although  we  have  taken  up  four  periods  which  were  best  suited  to 
our  own  class-work.  We  would  not  in  any  way  limit  the  series 
of  maps  to  the  four  here  given,  and  could  wish  these  to  be  taken 
rather  as  suggestions  than  as  models.      Let  us  say,  then,  that  the 


A  Period  of  Local  Development. 


^19 


Fig.  102. 


220  Perry's  Victory, 

third  period  shall  extend  from  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
to  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  (1800 — 1861).     (Fig.  102.) 

In  the  eastern  section  we  find  the  United  States  Bank  with  its 
first  charter,  extending  from  1791  to  181 1  ;  then  the  reorganized 
bank,  from  1817  to  1836. 

Passing  now  to  the  western  river,  we  find  Aaron  Burr  (1806) 
expecting  to  draw  recruits  from  the  upper  Allegheny  to  aid  him 
in  his  ambitious  designs  to  seize  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
Mexico  and  establish  himself  in  power  as  Cortez,  had  done  be- 
fore him. 

The  northwestern  part  of  the  state  is  overshadowed  by  the 
name  of  Perry.  At  Erie  a  fleet  was  built  from  the  trees  of  the 
virgin  forest  ;  and,  moving  down  to  the  w^estern  end  of  the  lake, 
the  young  commander,  who  had  never  seen  a  naval  battle,  gained 
his  famous  victory  over  one  of  Nelson's  veterans.  "  We  have  met 
the  enemy  and  they  are  ours,''  rings  through  this  section  of  the 
state  as,  on  September  10,  the  children  in  our  country  schools 
still  celebrate  the  victory.  We  do  not  know  w^hat  wise  instructor 
started  such  concrete  teaching,  but  it  certainly  must  have  its  in- 
fluence upon  the  youthful  minds. 

What  need  to  go  to  classic  Greece  to  seek  out  spots  sacred  to 
liberty  ?  We  have  them  here  !  Points  in  the  orbit  of  that  strange 
offshoot  of  Puritan  stock,  ''  Old  Ossawatomie,"  are  found  in 
Beaver  and  Crawford  counties.  At  Darlington  academy  the 
youth  learned  lessons  in  freedom  and  truth.  Our  grand  old 
commonwealth  may  well  be  proud  that  her  soil  has  been  trodden 
by  the  feet  of  him  of  whom  Victor  Hugo  could  write  the  fitting 
tribute, ''  For  Christ,  like  Christ."  And  Wendell  Phillips  could 
say :  '*  Well,  men  say  he  failed.  Soldiers  call  Bunker  Hill  a  de- 
feat, but  liberty  dates  from  it,  though  Warren  lay  dead  on  the 
field.  Actually,  a  man  had  been  found  ready  to  die  for  an  idea. 
God  be  thanked  for  old  John  Brown." 


Volcanic  Forces  in  History. 


221 


Fig.  103 


^22  Lincoln  the  First  American. 

But  we  must  not  dwell  too  long  here.  The  region  of  the 
Susquehanna  must  claim  a  share  of  our  attention.  The  public- 
school  law,  originated  in  1834,  was  championed  by  Thaddeus 
Stevens.  At  Towanda,  in  1846,  lived  David  Wilmot,  the  author 
of  the  famous  ''  Proviso,"  of  which  Horace  Mann  said,  ''  I  would 
pass  it,  rebellion  or  not."  Lancaster  was  the  home,  as  it  is  the 
burial-place,  of  President  Buchanan  (1857-61).  At  Carlisle,  in 
1861,  that  pure  and  noble  patriot.  Gen.  Thomas,  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  his  country  rather  than  to  his  state ;  although  he  might 
have  followed  the  example  set  by  his  fellow-Virginian,  Gen.  Robt. 
E.  Lee.  With  Stanton  at  Pittsburg,  Thomas  at  Carlisle,  and 
Thaddeus  Stevens  to  lead  the  way  toward  the  nation's  capital, 
the  Civil  War  comes  fairly  into  view  (Fig.  103). 

But  reverent  hands  must  lift  the  curtain  here.  The  graves  at 
Gettysburg  mark  well  the  field  on  which  the  armies  of  twenty- 
eight  states  fought  to  decide  the  question  of  mankind's  right  to 
freedom. 

The  noble  sons  of  Pennsylvania — Meade,  Hancock,  Reynolds, 
Zook,  and  hosts  of  others — gained  an  undying  fame  ;  but  Lincoln, 
the  type  of  the  true  American,  overshadows  all  the  place.  We 
hear  his  words  as  the  battle-field  becomes  the  resting-place  of 
heroes : 

*' We  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot  hallow, 
this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled 
here  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  power  to  add  or  detract. 
The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here, 
but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  rather  for  us — 
that  we  highly  resolve  that  the  nation  shall,  under  God,  have  a 
new  birth  of  freedom  ;  and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the 
people,  and  for  the  people  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth." 

In  Philadelphia,  in  1876,  the  Centennial  brings  together  the 
North  and  the  South  to  celebrate  in  peace  the  nation's  birthday. 


We  Seek  the  Fountains  of  History,  223 

The  name  of  Grant  is  here  associated,  and  also  that  of  the 
nation's  guest,  Dom  Pedro. 

But  this  exiled  emperor  of  Brazil  is  dead.  His  last  conscious 
words  were  an  expression  of  his  deep  affection  for  his  country, 
and  his  regret  that  he  could  not  go  back  there  to  die.  His  death 
will  probably  put  an  end  to  all  attempts  to  revive  the  Brazilian 
empire. 

At  Pottsville  and  at  Mauch  Chunk,  in  1877,  the  "  Mollie 
Maguires  "  expiated  their  crimes  in  a  section  associated  with  the 
massacres  by  Tories  and  Indians.  The  same  year  saw  the  ter- 
rible railroad  riots  at  Pittsburg,  during  which  the  city  was  com- 
pletely in  the  power  of  the  rioters,  who  defied  the  sheriff,  and 
boasted  that  no  body  of  troops  could  subdue  them. 

In  the  year  1889  the  valley  of  the  Conemaugh  was  swept  by 
the  great  flood.  In  this  great  disaster  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
city  of  Johnstown  was  destroyed,  and  thousands  lost  their  lives. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Monongahela,  at  Homestead,  July  6, 
1892,  occurred  the  famous  labor  riots,  in  which  the  employment 
of  Pinkerton  detectives  was  resisted. 

Not  the  least  among  the  names  upon  the  roll  of  honor  of 
this  great  state  is  that  of  James  G.  Blaine.  This  noted  statesman 
was  born  in  Washington  county  in  1830,  and  died  in  Washington, 
D.C.,  on  Friday,  January  27,  1893.  He  had  long  represented 
Maine  in  the  councils  of  the  nation. 

By  the  study  of  the  present  we  may  bring  ourselves  into 
closer  relations  with  the  past;  and  adopting  a  scientific  method 
in  our  work,  we  seek  after  fountains  of  history  rather  than  for 
foundations. 


Mm  10  iM 


